Investigating Students' Ability To Transfer Ideas ... - ACS Publications

Research: Science and Education edited by

Chemical Education Research

Diane M. Bunce The Catholic University of America Washington, DC 20064

Investigating Students’ Ability To Transfer Ideas Learned from Molecular Animations of the Dissolution Process Resa M. Kelly* Department of Chemistry, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA 95192; *[email protected] Loretta L. Jones Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO 80639

A variety of animations of microchemistry processes that depict the particulate nature of macroscopic chemical events have been developed in order to help students visualize molecular structure and dynamics (1). Several studies (1–5) have suggested that chemistry students are better able to answer conceptual questions about particulate phenomena when they receive instruction that includes animations of these phenomena. In addition, Mayer and Anderson (6) showed that students viewing animations with narration were able to transfer their learning to solve problems in a new area immediately following the viewing of an animation. In this study the question of whether the learning that took place was sufficiently meaningful that it could be transferred to new situations at a later point in time was investigated. According to Ormrod (7), when a student applies knowledge gained from previous experiences to learn or perform in a new situation, transfer is occurring. Similarly, Georghiades (8) suggests that transfer is “when a skill or concept is used to solve a different problem within a different setting”. Research by Jacobson and Archodidou (9) suggests that hypermedia tools developed for case- and problem-centered learning help foster significant learning outcomes such as deep conceptual understanding, conceptual change, and knowledge transfer. However, little research has focused on the extent to which students are able to transfer conceptual understanding of the particulate nature of matter gained from viewing animations of molecular processes to new situations. Some studies (10, 11) suggest that the abundance of information in an animation, especially if it is in the form of seductive detail, may have no beneficial teaching effect over equivalent static designs or may even be detrimental to the learning process. According to Tasker (12) students may develop simplistic or incomplete understanding of the particulate level of chemistry as a result of animations; such incomplete information may not be useful for interpreting other chemistry concepts. This study investigated how college-level general chemistry students who had viewed two video animations of molecularlevel sodium chloride dissolution were able to transfer their understanding of salt dissolution one week later to describe a solution of aqueous sodium chloride used as a reactant presented in a video demonstration of a chemical reaction that resulted in the formation of a precipitate. Although the system was the same (a solution of sodium chloride in water), the situation in which it was used was different. Background

book animations of sodium chloride dissolution produced by VisChem (15) and Prentice Hall (16) after each performed a hands-on activity of the same event. An analysis of the data showed that students incorporated some of the structural and functional features from the animation (Table 1) into their drawn explanations, and overall displayed fewer misconceptions than in their initial explanations. As displayed by their drawings (Table 1), most students recognized that spheres of hydration formed around each ion after the salt was dissolved in water, and all 18 students showed the interaction of water molecules with the ions in their pictures. This paper focuses on the second phase of this study, in which these 18 students returned individually one week after the first phase of the study to view a video demonstration of a macroscopic precipitation reaction. The specific research question investigated was: What features from their explanations of sodium chloride dissolution do students transfer into their explanations of the reactant solutions displayed in a video demonstration of a precipitation reaction?

Table 1. Example Drawings of NaCl(aq) Made after Viewing Animations of Microscopic NaCl Dissolution Students

Microscopic Drawings

Bear

Cougar

Junebug

Seal

In the first phase of this research (13, 14), 18 students enrolled in general chemistry were shown two popular text© Division of Chemical Education • www.JCE.DivCHED.org • Vol. 85 No. 2 February 2008 • Journal of Chemical Education

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Research: Science and Education

Theoretical Perspective

Data Collection Methods

According to Crotty (17), a constructivist views meaning as not being discovered, but rather as a mental process in which understanding undergoes restructuring. When people gain knowledge they are trying to make sense of new thoughts that coincide with their previous ideas. Schwandt (18) explains that learning does not occur in isolation; rather it is constructed against a backdrop of shared understandings, practices, and language. Thus, a given person’s knowledge must “fit” with reality; people’s life experiences are constantly testing the viability of their knowledge. These constructivist pedagogical theories help to explain the findings of the previous study (13, 14), because students who initially viewed two animations had revised their mental representation of salt dissolution based on the fit between the content of the animations and their prior knowledge. This study investigated whether this revision of students’ understanding of salt dissolution associated with viewing the animations enabled them to transfer their new understanding to describe the aqueous sodium chloride reactant solution presented in a video demonstration of a precipitation reaction.

As mentioned previously, students returned one week after the first phase of this study (in which they completed an activity consisting of dissolving salt in water, viewed animations, and then communicated their understanding both orally and through writing and drawing). During the second phase of the study, students viewed a video demonstration of the mixing of solutions of sodium chloride and silver nitrate, resulting in a precipitate of silver chloride. Then they were asked to explain in their own words and drawings how the demonstration made sense to them. A worksheet was administered to the students to guide them in constructing their descriptions of the precipitation reaction. (See the online supplement.) The document was divided into two sections: one was labeled with the question, “What did you actually see? Draw and/or explain.”; the other was labeled, “What you would see if you were the size of an atom? Draw and/or explain.” These two sections were divided into three parts: “Before solutions are mixed”, “During the mixing of solutions”, and “After the solutions are mixed”. In order to obtain a richer understanding of students’ written and drawn explanations, the students were asked to explain their work orally. The oral sessions of this study were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed for common themes. Following students’ oral explanations, a semi-structured interview was conducted to gain insight into the students’ experiences (20). The interviews focused on the students’ ideas about topics such as:

Student Participants Drawing from a first-semester, general chemistry course for science majors at a western university in the United States, 18 students who had completed a study of learning from two animations (13) were selected for this study. Selection was based on the results of a screening instrument that examined their ability to produce detailed written and pictorial explanations of a story about what happens when ice melts from the perspective of a water molecule. Students were not selected for their level of understanding; rather they were selected based on the amount of detail conveyed in their explanations because of the emphasis on written explanations in the methodology of the study. The students’ understanding was representative of the larger general chemistry course population from which they were drawn as judged by course instructors who reviewed the scientific explanations that were communicated. The participants included 12 females and 6 males at varying stages of study, reflecting the same general distribution of first- and second-year students as the whole lecture class. All 18 consented to participate; animal pseudonyms were used to protect their anonymity. Setting The study took place outside of class time in a conference room where individual students sat at a table with a notebook computer for viewing the video demonstration of a precipitation reaction and used structured worksheets to document their explanations. (See the online supplement.) The students had completed a unit that introduced them to the nature of aqueous solutions and had been exposed to a textbook illustration of a solution of sodium chloride viewed at the particulate level (19). The textbook illustration shows a sodium chloride lattice with some of the ions dispersed in the surrounding water inside spheres of hydration; however, the static picture does not communicate the dynamic nature of the dissolving process that is evident in the animations used in this study.

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• What does it mean if a solution is aqueous?

• What does it mean for something to be water soluble?

• How would you make an aqueous solution of sodium chloride?

• Did the previous animation influence how you explained this demonstration?

These interviews were also audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed for common themes or trends. Data Analysis After the students individually watched the video demonstration of the chemical reaction at least three times, they were asked to draw, from the macroscopic and microscopic (particulate-level) perspectives, the aqueous reactant solutions of sodium chloride and silver nitrate. Students’ drawings of the sodium chloride solution were analyzed for indications that they had transferred to this new situation their understanding of the particulate nature of a sodium chloride solution gained from the previous viewing of two animations of sodium chloride dissolution. Upon analysis of students’ drawn explanations, it was found that most students could draw the macroscopic representation of aqueous sodium chloride that they had seen in the video, although all of the students had difficulty forming an accurate particulate-level representation of the solution. All 18 students failed to illustrate the spheres of hydration that water molecules form around each ion when salt dissolves in water. This was surprising because just one week earlier all of the students were able to draw a representation that included

Journal of Chemical Education • Vol. 85 No. 2 February 2008 • www.JCE.DivCHED.org • © Division of Chemical Education

Research: Science and Education Table 2. Example Drawings of Macroscopic NaCl(aq) with a Microscopic Representation Indicating NaCl Existing as Pairs or Molecules Students

Macroscopic NaCl(aq)

Table 3. Example Drawings of Macroscopic and Microscopic NaCl(aq) Resembling Previous Drawings of NaCl(s) Made after Viewing the Animations

Microscopic NaCl(aq)

Post-Video Demonstration Drawings Students

Cougar

Eagle



Post- Animation Drawings Microscopic NaCl(s)

Bear

Kingbird

Jerboa

Junebug

Figure 1. Nighthawk’s macroscopic (left) and microscopic (right) drawings of the precipitation reaction.

the water molecules as spheres of hydration after viewing the animations. In fact, 50% of the students (9) drew sodium chloride as molecular pairs (Table 2); of these nine students only three drew the sodium chloride pairs mixed with drawn water molecules. Most students’ verbal explanations of their drawings focused on the formula or structure of the salts with little acknowledgement of the fact that the sodium chloride was dissolved in water. Four students incorporated ideas from the previously viewed animations inappropriately. Of the 18 students, three appeared to incorporate the lattice structure of solid sodium chloride that they had observed during the salt dissolution animations into their drawings of a particulate-level aqueous sodium chloride solution (Table 3) and, in one case, into the drawing of aqueous silver nitrate (Figure 1). Interestingly, these students drew a macroscopic representation of aqueous sodium chloride that was consistent with the video depiction and did not show any solid sodium chloride present. When these students were interviewed and asked to define “aqueous”, all four students correctly stated that “aqueous” meant that salt was dissolved in or mixed with water. When Monkey was asked to explain her drawing she admitted that the NaCl looked a lot like solid table salt. She had not drawn it in an

aqueous form as she did for the silver nitrate solution because that was what she pictured when she thought of salt. When she was asked how she would change her drawing to represent aqueous sodium chloride she said that she would probably just separate the ions a little. The other three students indicated that they simply guessed when they drew the lattice structure for aqueous sodium chloride. Kingbird stated that she had no idea how NaCl looked in an aqueous solution, although she indicated that she thought the molecules were together. According to Butts and Smith (21) students generally have a better conception of the structure of a solid than they do of the corresponding aqueous solution, especially in the case of sodium chloride. One student, Nighthawk, did not depict aqueous sodium chloride because he tried to draw what he had seen in the video demonstration, and because the video only showed the solution briefly, he decided not to draw aqueous sodium chloride separately. (See Figure 1.) He said that his drawing showed the sodium chloride solution as it reacted with the silver nitrate solution. In his microscopic representations, Nighthawk drew only the silver nitrate solution as a lattice structure, which he admitted was surrounded by water molecules, and later he added the molecules, in green, during the interview.

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Some students (3) drew their sodium chloride solution consisting of clusters of circles (Table 4), but their reasons for doing so varied substantially. Deer described her drawing as follows:

RMK: Okay, and same with sodium chloride?

Deer: Well, I started doing like little molecules but I didn’t know how to, you know, label them all. Like I didn’t know what each would look like if it was I guess it was 1 silver, 1 nitrate, and 3 oxygens. But I just started doing circles just to show that they were all stuck together like unified in the solution, but there’s many silver nitrate molecules in that drawing.

Deer: Yeah, we’ll go with that. I think that the NaCl molecules and the silver nitrate molecules are separating. They’re deionizing and they are reionizing to the to AgCl and then I’m not quite sure. Sodium nitrate is mixing in there too. They didn’t say that, but I would assume that.

Table 4. Example Drawings of Macroscopic NaCl with a Microscopic Representation of NaCl as Clusters of Circles Students



Deer

Jackrabbit

Kudu

Table 5. Students’ Drawings of Macroscopic NaCl(aq) with a Microscopic Representation of NaCl Solution as Separated Ions Students

Coyote

Koala

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Microscopic Solution

Deer: Yeah. RMK: So, each circle is representing sodium chloride?

Another student, Jackrabbit, expressed that he drew his solution shaded blue to represent that “it’s in the form of the beaker”. He explained, [Y]ou can see little like molecules or I’m sorry, atoms, in there all the same color, same thing here, blue just represents that it’s in the liquid form. …But they are all, they’re all close because they’re in a container so they take the shape of the container whatever they’re in because they are in solution.

The third student who drew clusters of circles distinguished the sodium from the chlorine, yet only vaguely explained her drawing simply stating, “I just mixed all the different salts together”. We noted with interest that—even though all of the students had been able to represent an aqueous solution of sodium chloride as consisting of ions separated by water molecules two weeks before—only two students, Coyote and Koala, indicated that an aqueous solution of sodium chloride would consist of separated ions (Table 5). At first Coyote did not make any microscopic drawings, because “I just didn’t pay attention to the directions there”. He was then asked to proceed with drawing the microscopic representations. Coyote seemed to avoid drawing a microscopic picture of aqueous sodium chloride; instead he focused primarily on the aqueous silver nitrate solution, and drew two separated circles for the silver ion and the nitrate ion without any water molecules. Koala also did not incorporate any water molecules in her drawing. When asked to explain her drawing, Koala stated, “You have in these aqueous solutions to start, sodium ions and chloride ions and they’re just kind of hanging out there”. When students were asked to explain what they were trying to communicate through their microscopic drawings, students seemed preoccupied with the symbolic level of representation, referring to the formulas of the species involved in the reaction. Many (14) indicated that they drew the “molecules”, the “chemical form”, or named the formula, such as “NaCl” or “sodium chloride”. One student ( Jaguar) admitted, “I just didn’t really know how to draw silver nitrate or sodium chloride so I just kind of guessed”. A few students (2) focused on the “switching” that occurred in the representation of double replacement reactions, as noted by the following explanation by Junebug. So you start off with silver, and the silver nitrate and the sodium chloride and when you mix them they’re like switching partners in a way, because the silver and the chloride are joining up, but then the sodium and the nitrate are just kind of splitting up.

Their experience with writing precipitation reactions may have caused them to draw sodium chloride and silver nitrate as separate pairs that would match the formulaic representation of switching the ions: AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) (molecular equation), Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → AgCl(s) (net ionic equation). For example, in their lecture class students were taught using symbolic representations that the



ionic compounds “switch partners” with the Ag+ ion going with the Cl− ion, and the Na+ ion going with the NO3− ion. This common strategy for discussing ionic equations and even the term “double displacement” might cause students to assume that the ions must form a molecular pair. The net ionic equation could also lead students to the wrong assumption that the ions come together to form a molecule. In one case, Jerboa’s oral explanation gave some insight into how he recognized that ions were present, but had difficulty applying the concepts gained from the salt dissolution animations. And the test tube you’ve got sodium chloride. I do know the charges on those are correct, and that it’s also in solution. So, you got your, well, wait a minute, I’m confused. Alright, well, anyway, I’m thinking that when sodium chloride is put into solution with water, shouldn’t it dissociate? But maybe I misread the video and it’s not sodium chloride. Either way, it’s irrelevant. It’s a metal and a non-metal, that’s what’s really important.

Following the students’ oral explanations of their drawings, students were asked how they would make an aqueous solution of sodium chloride. The majority of students (12) recognized that they would add sodium chloride to water to make the solution. Only a few students expressed that they were not sure. One student, Cat, suggested heating it up to make the solution, while another student, Coyote, thought that one would need to weigh out equal amounts of sodium and chloride and mix them to produce a solution. Kingbird also indicated that one would need to mix sodium and chloride together. Even though students seemed fairly certain about how to make the sodium chloride solution, none of them initially drew the ions surrounded by a sphere of hydration as they had learned from the animations in the previous week. When asked more directly whether they had thought about the previous salt dissolution animations when they were watching the precipitation reaction video or trying to explain the video, 13 students indicated “yes”: that they did think about the animations. Some students (10) felt that the animations helped them with their drawings, mentioning an understanding of what “it looked like” or how they pictured it. For example, Kangaroo stated, “When I was drawing them, because that helped me see ’em better than like anything else I’ve seen before”. A few (4) mentioned that the animations helped them understand structural features of sodium chloride, atoms, and molecules. Bear said, “It just helped with the sodium chloride, just ’cause it was in the last one. It’s easier.” Three students expressed that the animations helped them understand how the charges were involved and what the ratios of the ions would be to help represent what the compound would look like. Some students (5) recalled dissociation from the animations; specifically, the role of water in pulling apart the ions. Two students felt that the previous animations helped them determine how to assemble the products. One student mentioned that the previous animations showed that the sodium chloride no longer existed as sodium chloride, but rather sodium ions and chloride ions in the solution. This influenced her to believe that silver nitrate would break into silver and nitrate in a similar fashion. During the third interview, the researcher noticed that the students did not make an obvious connection between sodium chloride dissolution and the aqueous sodium chloride reactant solution. As a result of this discrepancy, she presented a question that was then used in the remaining interviews: “What if I told you that the test tube solution in the video was a solution

of sodium chloride and water; just like you made in the activity where you dissolved table salt in water?” More specifically, the students were asked if this would change how they drew the solution. Nearly all of the students (11) changed an aspect of their drawings with the majority (9) indicating that they would draw the sodium chloride solution as separated ions (Table 6).

Table 6. Example Revised Microscopic Drawings of the NaCl(aq) Constructed After Students Learned How the Aqueous Salt Solution Had Been Prepared Students

Revised Drawings

Bear

Cougar

Coyote

Deer

Kingbird

Seal


307


One student stated that the sodium chloride aqueous solution would exist as separated ions. Some students suggested that the solution would be “like last time” with the water attracted to the sodium and the chloride. Others offered even more details, stating that the hydrogen of water is positive so it is attracted to chlorine; one student, Kingbird, even tried to recall the number of water molecules surrounding each ion. A few students seemed less enlightened by the idea that the sodium chloride solution was made by mixing salt and water, and they merely suggested that they would add more water molecules to their drawings. Of the 11 students who elected to change some part of their drawings, three students (Bear, Kingbird, and Seal) drew spheres of hydration surrounding each ion, while four students (Coyote, Cougar, Kangaroo, and Deer) incorporated water molecules attached to the individual ions or to sodium chloride molecular pairs in their new pictures. Only two students, Koala and Jerboa, drew water molecules mixed with separated ions of sodium and chloride. Even though many students (11) elected to change their oral and drawn explanations of the sodium chloride and silver nitrate reactant solutions after being reminded of the animation, most students (12) expressed that they were still confused about some aspect of the precipitation process at the molecular level. Three students admitted that they were confused by the role of water. For example, Junebug expressed her confusion in this way: I’m not sure, I really don’t know if they would form a precipitate with the addition of water. Well, if water’s already split it up and has kind of, needs control over like what they already attracted to the water, so they might not break away so easily.

Another student, Monkey, admitted that she wasn’t really sure of the role water played, because she thought the ions just naturally found each other. She concluded that maybe the water was added to separate the ions, but stated that she had always been taught that in precipitation reactions, the positive is attracted to the negative and they just change partners. A few students were distracted when they tried to relate other chemistry concepts such as how the amounts of each of the two solutions affected the reaction, whether the addition of the water would increase the speed of the reaction, and how the charges on all the ions—more specifically the silver and the nitrate—would affect how many water molecules would surround the ions. Discussion and Implications Vermaat, Terlouw, and Dijkstra (22) reported that while students typically liked animations, they had difficulty remembering the animations when they were interviewed. The results of this study differ from those findings. When students were asked whether they thought about the animation when they were drawing their pictures of the chemical reaction or when they were trying to explain what happened, 67% of the students (12) replied that they had thoughts about the previous animations. The wide variety in what students reported is consistent with the distinctive way people construct their unique mental models when they are from diverse backgrounds and have different prior knowledge into which to fit their understanding. It also suggests that students have difficulty interpreting what they see in the animations, even when the viewing is followed by a reinforcing discussion. 308

Overall, it appeared that it was difficult for students to transfer their understanding of salt dissolution to drawing the aqueous reactant solution of sodium chloride in the chemical reaction without some guidance to consider how the solution was made. According to Hung and Chen (23), the students’ inability to relate their understanding of salt dissolution to the aqueous solution of sodium chloride may be a sign of situated cognition. Learning and developing knowledge involves experiencing how things are related, and new knowledge may have no meaning outside of such relations (23). In order to apply a mental model to a new situation, the student needs to recognize when a given task or situation has similarities to their prior experiences (24). It is possible that students in this study did not immediately connect the aqueous sodium chloride solution with the salt dissolution activity because the clear, colorless sodium chloride solution in a test tube depicted in the video looked like many solutions the students experienced in the laboratory course. As a result, perhaps students paid more attention to the fact that a precipitate was formed, which triggered their thoughts of double displacement reactions and solubility rules, concepts that were mentioned when students orally explained their written and drawn explanations. Conclusion The results of this study suggest that students learn to incorporate some features seen in animations into their own explanations, although they ultimately have difficulty transferring their understanding to new situations. When student responses were further probed we discovered that students were able to recall the process of salt dissolution, yet they did not relate that process to the same solution used as a reactant, an aqueous sodium chloride solution involved in a precipitation reaction. The teaching implication is that students need frequent reinforcement of the meaning of scientific terms such as aqueous and water soluble. Students also need help connecting concepts learned previously with new material. When showing animations to a class, an instructor can help students process the new information and make meaningful connections to other chemical systems and processes by asking them at the time to describe similar systems, and by varying the substances involved. Finally, we believe that water molecules should be included in particulate-level diagrams of solutions to help students understand the formation of aqueous solutions and how precipitates are able to form in the presence of the solvent. Often textbooks and instructor diagrams represent the solvent as a continuous fluid in which the solute molecules float. Consequently, students are unaware of the importance of interactions between solute and solvent molecules during the dissolution process. Literature Cited 1. Kelly, R. M.; Phelps, A. J.; Sanger, M. J. Chem. Educator 2004, 9, 184–189. 2. Sanger, M. J.; Phelps, A. J.; Fienhold, J. J. Chem. Educ. 2000, 77, 1517–1520. 3. Wu, H.; Krajcik, J.; Soloway, E. J. Res. Sci. Teaching 2001, 38, 821–842. 4. Burke, K.; Greenbowe, T.; Windschitl, M. J. Chem. Educ. 1998, 75, 1658–1661. 5. Williamson, V. M.; Abraham, M. R. J. Res. Sci. Teaching 1995, 32, 521–534.


Research: Science and Education 6. Mayer, R. E.; Anderson, R. B. J. Educ. Psychol. 1991, 83, 484– 490. 7. Ormrod, J. E. Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 4th ed.; Merrill-Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2003. 8. Georghiades, P. Educ. Researcher 2000, 42, 119–139. 9. Jacobson, M. J.; Archodidou, A. J. Learn. Sci. 2000, 9 (2), 145–199. 10. Harp, S. F.; Mayer, R. M. J. Educ. Psychol. 1998, 90, 414–434. 11. Tversky, B.; Morrison, J. B.; Betrancourt, M. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. 2002, 57, 247–262. 12. Tasker, R. UniServe Science News 1998, 9 (March). The VisChem Project: Molecular-Level Animations in Chemistry—Potential and Caution. http://science.uniserve.edu.au/newsletter/vol9/tasker. html (accessed Nov 2007). 13. Kelly, R. M. Exploring How Animations of Sodium Chloride Dissolution Affect Students’ Explanations. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 2005. 14. Kelly, R. M.; Jones, L. L. J. Sci. Educ. Tech. 2007, 16, 413–429. 15. Tasker, R. NaCl Dissolution. http://bcs.whfreeman.com/chemicalprinciples3e/pages/bcs-main.asp?v=category&s=00030&n=00000 &i=00030.01&o=|00510|00520|00550|00560|00570|00580|0 0590|00PRS|00010|00020|00030|00040|00050|00060|00080| 00090|00100|00110|00120|00130|00140|00150|00160|00170 |00180|00000|01000|02000|03000|04000|05000|06000|0700 0|08000|09000|10000|11000|12000|13000|14000|15000|160 00|17000|18000|19000|99000|&ns=0 (accessed Nov 2007). 16. Brown, T. L.; LeMay, H. E.; Bursten, B. E.; Burdge, J. R. Visualizing Molecules: Sodium Chloride. http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_brown_ chemistry_9/0,4647,169984-,00.html (accessed Nov 2007).

17. Crotty, M. The Foundation of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process; Sage Publications: London, 1998. 18. Schwandt, T. A. Dictionary of Qualitative Inquiry, 2nd ed.; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, 2001. 19. Brown, T. L.; LeMay, H. E.; Bursten, B. E.; Burdge, J. R. Chemistry: The Central Science, 10th ed.; Pearson Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2006. 20. Merriam, S. B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education; Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco, CA, 2001. 21. Butts, B.; Smith, R. Res. Sci. Educ. 1987, 17, 192–201. 22. Vermaat, H.; Terlouw, C.; Dijkstra, S. Multiple Representations in Web-Based Learning of Chemistry Concepts. Proceedings of the 84th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, April 2003; 3–16. 23. Hung, D. W. L.; Chen, D. Educ. Media Int. 2001, 38, 4–12. 24. Seel, N. M. Instr. Sci. 2001, 29, 403–427.

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