problems; and, third, it is important to coordinate federal-state actions to avoid o r alleviate groundwater problems. This is particularly true a s E P A and the states are about to launch the Resources Conservation and Recovery Act ( R C R A ) and Underground Injection Control ( U I C ) programs, and a r e looking hopefully to the passage of the Superfund legislation. With the new initiative and concentrated effort in attempting to prevent a problem with enormous health implications from becoming a reality. the EPA will be living up to its mandate. ES&T is to be congratulated for running the groundwater article and keeping this issue before the public. blarion-bllay U S . EPA, Office of Water and
Waste Management Washington,b.C. 20460
Atmospheric mixing Dear Sir: The article “Atmospheric mixing” ( E S &T, January 1980, p 15) gives a somewhat incomplete description of research efforts that have contributed to current understanding of the transport processes by w h ich ozone-rich air from the stratosphere
can rapidly intrude into the troposphere. This correspondence is intended to provide a n expanded overview of that research. The concept of tropopause folding appears in the literature as early as 1937. However, it was not until 1955 that Reed ( I ) presented rather convincing evidence t h a t tropopause folding involved transport of stratospheric air into the troposphere. During the 1960s. tropopause folding was extensively researched by Danielsen ( 2 ) and Reiter (3) in connection with airborne measurements of the transport of radioactive debris from the stratosphere into the troposphere. I n 1970, Danielsen ( 4 ) published aircraft data that showed the transport of high concentrations of stratospheric ozone through the tropopause fold. These researchers found tropopause folding to be associated with lowpressure systems and jet streams in the upper troposphere. Over the continental United States, such weather systems occur frequently during winter and spring, and generally move from west t o east under the influence of the prevailing westerly winds. In 1973, Mahlman ( 5 ) computed the air circulation associated with a jet stream. It showed strong downward motion
from the stratosphere to the lower troposphere on the north side of the jet core. This downward branch transports the natural ozone as observed by Danielsen. I n addition to Shapiro’s spring 1978 flight program, another experimental program was carried out in the spring and fall of 1978 by S R I International and results published (6, 7 ) .This program, sponsored bq the Air Pollution Research Advisory Committee of the Coordinating Research Council, Inc., investigated by instrumented aircraft several cases of tropopause folding and stratospheric/tropospheric ozone transport in areas east of the Rocky Mountains, \I here the occurrence and organization of such events had never been documented. In one case observed during October 1978, the stratospheric ozone intrusion penetrated down to 2 km above ground level. A t this time, the fate of intrusions below 2 km remains unexplored. S R I , however, is continuing its research on the impact of stratospheric ozone on ground level measurements, as are several other researchers. (1) Reed, R. J., “A Study of a Characteristic Type of Upper Level Frontogenesis,” J Meteorol 1955,12, 226-37. continued on page 631
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( 2 ) Danielsen, E. F., “Stratospheric-Tropospheric Exchange Based on Radioactivity, Ozone, and Potential Vorticity,” J . Atmos. Sci. 1968,25, 502-18. (3) Reiter, E. R., “A Case Study of Radioactive Fallout,” J . A p p i . Meteorol. 1963, 2 (6), 691-705. (4) Danielsen, E. F.; Bleck, R.; Shedlovsky, J.; Wartburg, A,; Haagenson, P.; Pollock, W., “Observed Distribution of Radioactivity, Ozone, and Potential Vorticity Associated with Tro-Dooause Foldine.” J . Geoahvs. ‘ . Res. 1970, 75 Ili),2353-61. ( 5 ) Mahlman, J. D.. “On the Maintenance of the Polar Front Jet S t r e a m , ” J . Atmos Sti 1973,30, 544-56. (6) Johnson. W. B.: Viezee. W.: Cavanaeh. L.: Ludwig, F. L.; Singh, H. n.;Danielsen,-E. F., “Measurements of Stratospheric Ozone Penetrations Into the Lower Troposphere,” Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Turbulence and Diffusion, p. 355-62, Boston, Mass. January 1979; American Meteorological Societv. ( 7 ) Viezee, W.; Johnson, W.B.; Singh, H. B.. “Airborne Measurements of Stratospheric Ozone Intrusions Into the Troposphere Over the United States,” Final Report, Volume I. Contract CRC-APRAC Project No. CAPA15-76 (1-77), 219 Perimeter Center Parkway, Atlanta, Ga., September 1979; Coordinating Research Council, Inc.
William Viezee Warren B. Johnson Hanwant B. Singh SRI International
Menlo Park. Calif. 94025
Alcohol fuel Dear Sir: Your discussion of gasohol (ES&T, February 1980, p 140) omits three items which promise to be important to the energy input required to produce fuel and which I would like to see discussed. ( I ) W h a t is the comparison with octane boosters? Alcohols increase octane without lead and without energy-intensive refining. Hut what are the numbers? (2) Alcohols can be separated from the mash catalytically; again, what are the numbers and who is developing the technology? (3) Solar energy can very conveniently be used on a small scale by farmers both for distillation and for drying. Paul Butkerert Freeport, N.Y. 11520
Marine pollution Dear Sir: This is an expression of our appreciation for the fine job you and your colleagues did on our article on marine pollution ( E S &T, January 1980, p 32). T h e organization you introduced in the representation of figures and tables was particularly gratifying. Donald C. Malins Director Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center Seattle, Wash. 98 1 12 Volume 14, Number 6, June 1980 631
