Liberal Arts Reading Strategies for the High School and University

Chapter 9

Liberal Arts Reading Strategies for the High School and University Chemistry Classroom Downloaded by UNIV OF FLORIDA on December 11, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date (Web): October 31, 2017 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2017-1266.ch009

Elaine B. Vickers*,1 and Rebecca Caldwell2 1Department

of Physical Science, Southern Utah University, 351 W. University Boulevard, Cedar City, Utah 84720, United States 2Department of Science, Trenton High School, 2601 Charlton Road, Trenton, Michigan 48183, United States *E-mail: [email protected].

Traditional liberal arts content can be integrated into chemistry courses by incorporating works of literature—e.g. novels, creative nonfiction, plays, and poetry—into the curriculum. Such implementation is possible with minimal impact on lecture time and can be done through two specific strategies outlined in this chapter: literacy challenges and literature circles. These strategies foster engaged, enjoyable reading while encouraging students to stretch themselves and their knowledge of course concepts. In addition, such assignments result in greater student-instructor and student-student rapport. Multiple approaches, components, and tips for such assignments will be discussed.

Introduction Reading—proficiently, critically, even enthusiastically—is one of the key skills students must master in order to succeed in a chemistry course. Yet many students simply skim or avoid reading assignments in general and academic publications in particular. Is there, then, a pathway by which students can rediscover (or perhaps discover) a love of reading? Could such discovery lead to increased reading of their textbook or course reading assignments? Additionally, could such a pathway provide an additional link in students’ minds between the chemical content covered in lecture and the chemistry inherent to their lives? © 2017 American Chemical Society Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

Downloaded by UNIV OF FLORIDA on December 11, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date (Web): October 31, 2017 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2017-1266.ch009

Introducing liberal arts literacy components into chemistry courses and encouraging students to read works of literature, including novels, poetry, creative nonfiction, plays, and screenplays could provide such a pathway. As students read books they have selected for themselves and material they enjoy reading, their aversion to and avoidance of reading breaks down, and they become more likely to read from their textbook or other scientific sources more often, more willingly, and in a more engaged manner. Typically, students enter science courses with the (reasonable) expectation that they will be asked to read scientific textbooks and articles, which are too often dry and/or difficult to properly engage them. As a result, reading becomes a chore to be avoided, and both the quality and quantity of student reading suffers. In addition, while not all are interested in reading primary literature, many would enjoy the ability to self-select a book that centers around science and the work of scientists. Students likely do not associate science class with reading novels, but that is something we as instructors can change about how students view science and what scientists do. Scientists read for information, read for fun, and read to engage with what other scientists are doing. If our goal is to have students think and act like scientists, reading broadly and deeply ought to be an important component of that goal. The adoption of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (1) by over 40 states has given high school science teachers the path to discuss the importance of reading as a way for students to engage in scientific practices. As teachers, we know how valuable and enjoyable reading can be to students, but often we do not know how to incorporate reading of novel-length works of literature into our classrooms. What about all the chemistry content? What if I don’t have time to cover [you fill in the blank]? These are valid concerns as teachers because we do not want to shortchange our students as they continue on in education. Or perhaps we feel this is our one chance to get students to experience chemistry. Fortunately, liberal arts reading can be integrated into chemistry courses, from high school through graduate school, without sacrificing content coverage. This premise has already seen support and successful implementation by numerous individual faculty members as well as organizations, including the National Science Teachers Association’s encouragement of literature circles (2), the relatively common practice of using science fiction to support student learning of science fact (3–5) and the unique ability of narrative fiction to engage students on a number of scientific topics (6). The principle of integrating literature and literacy into science class is increasingly considered essential for students as young as elementary school (7, 8) and research suggests a strong benefit in student learning when reading and writing are used in science class to develop scientific literacy as social practice (9). The integration of liberal arts reading into chemistry courses can be accomplished through two specific strategies outlined in this chapter: literacy challenges and literature circles. Both foster engaged, enjoyable reading while simultaneously building the students’ ability to connect scientific concepts to everyday life. In addition, these assignments give students the opportunity to develop a greater rapport with the instructor and with each other. 154 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

In this chapter, an overview of the literacy challenge and the literature circle assignments are presented, followed by ideas for implementation of these strategies, a recommended reading list to get instructors and students started, and relevant references for those interested in further study.

Method One: Literacy Challenges


Background From high school through university, chemistry courses often have a vast amount of content that must be covered in a limited number of lecture hours. While many instructors like the idea of incorporating liberal arts or cross-curricular content, time constraints often prohibit this to a large degree. As instructors, however, we do not hesitate to give students large reading assignments from textbooks and other scientific sources that are often dry and technical. While this is arguably an important way to learn the content, too often it has the unintended and unfortunate effect of dampening students’ love of reading—or extinguishing it altogether. In addition, the assignment of textbook reading to a generation of students that does much of their reading in small portions on electronic screens can exacerbate problems in terms of overall literacy. Many of today’s students struggle with reading to begin with. In recent studies, only 20-35% of students at the middle school (10) through college (11) level were rated as proficient readers capable of critical evaluation of their reading material. While it is certainly valuable and necessary to challenge these students and help them reach a point where they are able to comprehend and retain the content of their textbook readings, additional tools are needed to bridge the gap between reading tweets and reading texts. Students need to be able to read engaging, accessible works of literature in order to hone their reading skills and open themselves up to the possibility of learning from and even enjoying reading. One immediate and easily-implemented step toward this goal is incorporation of a literacy challenge into virtually any chemistry course, from high school through graduate level. This assignment is easily adopted and takes up virtually no lecture time.

Overview and Implementation The literature challenge has been used in the following courses at Southern Utah University: Introductory Chemistry (one-semester general education course), Elementary (GOB) Chemistry (general portion of a two-semester course), and Intermediate Inorganic Chemistry (one-semester upper division course for majors.) Typical enrollment in each of these courses is 40-50 students. The literacy challenge requires only a brief introduction during lecture at the beginning of the semester. One successful approach has been to give students a brief overview of the assignment during the second day of lecture and enhance the 155 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

appeal of the assignment by bringing a stack of books. The instructor then gives a one-to-two-sentence overview of each in order to catch the students’ attention and get them thinking. After the initial introduction in lecture, the assignment takes place in four steps on the student’s own time:


1.

2.

Students choose a book to read and sign up in the instructor’s office within the first two weeks of class. This ensures that the assignment is begun and also makes students find and visit the instructor’s office to see that the office is accessible and the instructor is approachable. (Students may change their chosen title at any point in the semester without penalty.) Students read the book, keeping the following in mind: •

•

3.

4.

The main objective is to read for enjoyment. Students should pick a book they genuinely want to read and should enjoy the story. As they are reading, students mark 3-5 places in the book where they find chemistry as well as a few favorite passages. (For introductory courses, I encourage them to find as many chemistry connections as possible but also allow science connections in general.)

Students find an article online that ties into one of the specific chemistry concepts they found in the book. Peer-reviewed journals are preferred but not required for introductory courses; however, articles must be from reliable sources. Students report to the instructor (typically during office hours) to complete the assignment. The brief oral exam typically consists of four parts, varying in length depending on the students’ enthusiasm and attention to detail: • • • •

Tell me a little about the book. What were some of your favorite parts or passages? Tell me about the chemistry you found in the book. Tell me about the article you found and how it relates to the book. What are you going to read next?

It is helpful to remind the students about this assignment throughout the semester. Typically, the oral exam must be completed about a month before the semester ends to avoid conflicts between reading and preparing for final exams. The relative informality of the assignment itself as well as its grading is essential in fostering the idea that reading should not be an exercise in searching for potential test content but in truly enjoying, understanding, and connecting information, emotion, and experience. A simple rubric can be used in grading and may include the following categories: 156 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

• • • • •

Appropriate book selection Knowledge of book (Does the student seem to have actually read it?) Thoughtful reflection (Does the student seem to have reflected on the book rather than just memorizing plot points, etc.?) Chemical connection (Did the student find chemistry in the book and make appropriate connections to course material?) Article selection (Did the student find an appropriate scientific article related to the chemistry in the book, and do they understand the article itself?)


Outcomes To date, this assignment has been implemented for approximately 300 chemistry students in three different chemistry courses over the course of the past two academic years. Naturally, not every student has enjoyed the assignment, and not every student has completed the assignment. However, a majority report a positive experience both when they come to complete the oral exam and on their anonymous course evaluation at the end of the semester. Due to the deliberately informal nature of the literacy challenge, responses collected are anecdotal and not quantized or heavily analyzed, but the following are common themes: • • • •

“I already know what I’m going to read next, because I found this other book that relates to my major or future career.” “I wasn’t sure if I’d find anything in this book, but there really is chemistry in everything.” “This part of my book reminded me of this concept from class, and it makes more sense now.” “I remembered how much I like reading.”

Reading To Enhance Scientific Literacy: An Alternate Approach An alternative approach to the literacy challenge has been presented and implemented in a university-level biology course and is worthy of further attention (12). In this assignment, students must choose from a list of books provided by the instructor. Rather than finding an article and having a single oral examination to complete the assignment, students were asked to read one book from the list over a four-week period. Students joined a permission-only group on the book-based social media site Goodreads so their reading progress could be tracked; the site also allowed impressions and journal entries to foster student engagement with reading. After completion of the reading, online discussions were started via open-ended questions to allow for critical analysis of the story and facilitate analysis of the books’ scientific content. Students were then charged with finding a research article related to the scientific themes of their chosen story. The final assignment was a paper connecting the story with the article and reflecting on the topic from both viewpoints. In essence, this alternative approach represents somewhat of a hybrid between the literacy assignment presented previously and the literature circles presented in the following section. 157 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

Method Two: Literature Circles


Background The use of literature circles, which has primarily existed in the context of a student’s English class, can bring liberal arts reading content into any science classroom. Literature circles are essentially book clubs: small, peer-led discussion groups (13). Literatures circles exist in elementary and secondary classrooms and certainly on college campuses. An important feature common of literature circles is to allow the students to lead the discussions. While book clubs have found a way into the mainstream, teachers are able to personalize the concept of literature circles into their classrooms. Teachers are personalizing literature circles to introduce new and complicated scientific vocabulary (14) and to allow students to make connections between scientific concepts and historical events (15). For example, a teacher may need to instruct about nuclear chemistry. Past practice of teaching may include lectures, reading the textbook, and defining words such as fission and fusion. Students given the opportunity to read The Plutonium Files by Eileen Welsome and then participate in literature circles are introduced to key terms, given historical context as well as knowledge of the application of the nuclear chemistry. Overview and Implementation Literature circles were first implemented into a suburban high school general science class available to students in grades 9-12. Each of the two sections had 30 students. A survey given at the beginning of the classes found that 77.0% of the students read once a week for fun. The majority, 84.2% of the students, indicated they planned to attend a 4-year university. The most popular reported majors among these students were the health industry and business. The focus of this course is on the behaviors of scientists that are found in all disciplines when investigating and communicating about the natural world. Since the practices of science are stressed within the course, the activities can be centered on any scientific topics that students find interesting or want to know more about. Using literature circles gives students the opportunity to ask questions and define problems, engage in argument, and communicate information. These are three of the scientific practices of the new NGSS. Students were able to self-select books based on their interest in a particular area of science and had an opportunity to ask questions, participate in argumentation, and communicate information. In a traditional literature circle, the members are reading the same book and each small group discussion is centered on that book. Science is meant for evaluation—which includes comparing and contrasting—so groups were also allowed to choose different books by the same author or different books on the same topic. For example, a group was formed from students that enjoyed the style of writing by Mary Roach and could each read one of the following books: Packing for Mars, Stiff, Spook, Gulp, and Grunt. Another group formed around their interest in the food industry and books included Fast Food Nation, Food Inc., and Omnivore’s Dilemma. 158 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


While this is a nontraditional use of literature circles, in science it adds another dimension of evaluation and communication of ideas because not each person in the group had their eyes on the same set of words. Due to the variety of abilities because of age range of students as well as the difference in prior knowledge and experiences in science, it is helpful for students to select their own groups. This minimizes students’ concerns about speaking out and participating in a group. Each group had no less than four students; most groups had six students. It is important that the selection of the book centers on the interests of the individual students, but it can also be necessary for the instructor to provide some guidance. In high schools, a teacher must consider the available resources. The nontraditional formation of groups is helpful when libraries do not have enough copies of the same book but do have multiple books from the same author or centered on a particular topic. If a group was insistent on reading the same book, the group worked together to secure the same book for each member of the group. Outside the use of students’ written notes, which included a summary of the reading, new vocabulary words, and a list of lingering questions, there were no other writing assignments associated with the literature circles. The goal of the weekly group meetings were to engage in a natural conversation about the week’s reading. Each group was provided a lists of general questions to help facilitate discussion. (“What in the reading is connected to something you already learned about science?” or “What new questions about science do you have after this week’s reading?”) Students were expected to use evidence and passages from the book to support statements and arguments. The weekly group leader had the responsibility of keeping a log of each person’s participation by keeping a tally sheet. This was to ensure there were, as we put it in class, “no hogs and no logs.” The weekly group leader was there to assure each person had an opportunity to add to the conversation and that a group member was not allowed to be entirely passive (or dominant) in the discussion. This position rotated weekly so that each member had the opportunity to facilitate the discussion and lead the group. Students were assessed based on the quality of discussions, participation, use of text as evidence in discussions and journal entries described above. The evaluation was based on the instructor’s observations of on-task behaviors and the student’s turn at being the moderator or group leader. Self-assessment is also appropriate for literature circles. Students were to rate themselves after each discussion session with 5 being the highest and 1 being the lowest according to the following criteria: • • • • • •

I was able to complete all of this week’s reading assignment. I was able to complete my journal entry. I participated fully in today’s group discussion. I was able to use information from the text in my examples and arguments. Each member had an opportunity to participate in today’s discussion. The group leader was able to keep our group on task.

The use of literature circles in a science course can be an avenue to introduce students to new genres of books and encourage scientific discussions that do not come naturally from reading textbooks. The end of the project survey indicated 159 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


these future health science and business majors were introduced to books never before read and that they would read this genre again within the context of a future science course. Students reported enjoying the relaxed environment of the discussion although it was difficult at times getting discussions started in the groups. The group leaders had an important function in facilitating evidence based discussions; a skill desired among all majors and professions. Another added benefit to literature circles is the natural introduction of science vocabulary. Students were asked to record new scientific vocabulary found within the text. The introduction of vocabulary was not just a collection of words in a list to be separated defined. In cases where students are reading the same book, the teacher may choose to select important science vocabulary to introduce and study within context of the selected book. Students may then be assigned the task of finding other related vocabulary or other sources and usage of that term. Most importantly students were able to take ownership of what they wanted to learn and then engage in scientific practices that allowed them to ask questions, participate in argumentation and evidence-based communication. Although the structure of a college course is different than high school and may not allow as much time for reading and discussion with the class period, this is not impossible within the constraints of a college schedule. Reading times can be limited to one hour outside of class to allow time for other course work. Portions of lab time or recitation time can be used to facilitate group discussions. Instructors make time for what they prioritize and value in learning. If scientific practices as well as content are a priority and valued, then literature circles can be a wonderful way to incorporate these practices into any science class.

Additional Ideas for Implementation Although two specific methods are outlined above, there is a great deal of flexibility in introducing liberal arts reading into chemistry courses. Here are a few additional guidelines: 1.

2.

Students often ask whether audiobooks are allowed; our answer is always yes. While reading in print results in better comprehension and retention for instructional texts (e.g. textbooks) (16), the opposite seems to be true for high-imagery texts (e.g. literary novels) (17), likely because the mind is more free to visualize and interpret literary language when it is not required to simultaneously decode text. Audiobooks also provide a solution for students who pronounce themselves “too busy to read” as they can be integrated into the schedule while driving, exercising, and various other tasks. In addition, many audiobook services (such as Audible) offer a free first book as a trial, and audiobooks are readily available at most libraries. Students may be overwhelmed by the idea of being able to choose any book. This can be compensated for to some degree by bringing a stack of books to class when the assignment is introduced and giving a very brief summary of each. 160 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

3.


4.

5.

6.

7.

The library can be integrated as part of the assignment and become a free point of access for attaining a student’s chosen book. In addition to an institution’s library, having a personal library of some of the recommended titles can be an effective way of connecting with students and making books and liberal arts reading seem even more accessible. Effective teaching often involves demonstrating a genuine appreciation and enthusiasm for the subject matter, which can easily be done not only for chemical content but for works of literature. By reading students short passages from some of the recommended books, both the lecture and the idea of reading become more appealing to the student. (A list of recommended passages to use in lecture is provided at the end of the chapter.) Though informal, proper assessment tools can be utilized for literature-based assignments. How do we know if students have learned what we have intended them to learn? The very mention of an assessment can make students guarded, possessive, or robotic when working in a literature circle or reporting on a literacy challenge. The use of observations, conferencing with students and groups, as well as journaling can be tools for assessment in literature circles. In general, it is not desirable for grades to be the focus of the literacy assignments. As such, credit based on the instructor’s evaluation of student participation, understanding, and performance is appropriate and may be based on the outcomes and observations of relatively informal discussions or interviews. Literature circles may require in-class reading time. While 77.0% of students participating in literature circles indicated they read weekly for fun, this did not translate for many in reading the books selected for class. After the first week, there was a sharp decline in the students that had completed the outside reading assignment. The introduction of this new genre of books was difficult for some. Allowing class time for students to read is not always ideal from a scheduling standpoint, but it does alleviate this problem. The promotion of reading and discussion is not exclusive to reading entire books and novels. In order to integrate literature circles into courses with high amounts of required content, shorter reading selections may be incorporated. Indeed, shorter articles may generate more discussion among students than their novels. Students are able to discuss what they have just read, making the ideas easier to recall. Some books do not require the reader to read the entire book from cover to cover because each chapter can be considered a short story. Two examples are Napoleon’s Buttons: 17 Molecules that Changed History by Jay Burreson and Penny Le Couteu and The Disappearing Spoon by Sam Kean.

161 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


Conclusion Educators agree that reading is an important skill in all disciplines and important for success in all aspects of life, but students’ desires and abilities in the reading arena are often lacking. The integration of liberal arts reading into chemistry classes can address this concern in a significant manner. By providing students a sample list of books—but then allowing students to choose any book they want to read—students have ownership in the title they’ve chosen, they rediscover the joy of reading that’s too often lost during the high school and undergraduate years, and they stretch themselves and their own knowledge of course concepts to find the connections between the story and the subject matter. Liberal arts reading can effectively bridge the gap between the short on-screen reading integral to students’ daily lives and the more challenging, technical reading required for success in school and ultimately in a professional setting.

Recommended Reading The following are a list of books that lend themselves well to literature circles and literacy challenges. (Note: It is highly recommended that the students be allowed to choose any book for the literacy challenge, but this list can serve as a starting point for students even when self-selection is allowed.) Novels The Sweetness at the Bottom of the Pie by Alan Bradley Cosmic by Frank Cottrell Boyce Catalyst by Laurie Halse Anderson Itch: The Explosive Adventures of an Element Hunter by Simon Mayo The Countdown Conspiracy by Katie Slivensky Frankenstein by Mary Shelley Rocket Boys by Homer Hickam Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes Nonfiction Packing for Mars by Mary Roach (also Stiff, Spook, Gulp, and Grunt) Omnivore’s Dilemma by Michael Pollan Fast Food Nation by Eric Schlosser Food Inc. by Karl Weber (Editor) The Canon by Natalie Angier A World from Dust by Ben McFarland The Disappearing Spoon by Sam Kean Napoleon’s Buttons by Penny Le Couteur and Jay Burreson What Einstein Told His Cook by Robert L. Wolke Stuff Matters by Mark Miodownik A Short History of Nearly Everything by Bill Bryson 162 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

Madam Curie: A Biography by Eve Curie and Vincent Sheean The Poisoner’s Handbook by Deborah Blum The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skloot Related to Pop Culture


The Science of Doctor Who by Paul Parsons The Physics of Star Trek by Lawrence M. Krauss Deja Dead by Kathy Reichs (basis for the TV series Bones) The Martian by Andy Weir (available in a classroom edition) Plays Copenhagen by Michael Frayn Arcadia by Tom Stoppard Proof by David Auburn Photograph 51 by Anna Ziegler The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds by Paul Zindel Poetry Atomic Romances, Molecular Dances by Mala Radhakrishnan Hypotheticals by Leigh Kotsilidis The Scientific Method by Mary Alexandra Agner

Literature Passages To Use in Lecture All the Light We Cannot See by Anthony Doerr is a Pulitzer Prize-winning novel in which a young German boy rebuilds a radio and hears broadcasts about science that capture his imagination. There are scientific passages throughout, but pages 48 and 53 contain a beautiful description of the first time he finds the broadcasts and poetically convey the magnitude of the electromagnetic spectrum. Lab Girl by Hope Jahren is a memoir that examines the life of a scientist, from childhood through graduate school and into research and academia. There are many relevant passages, but reading from the first two pages of chapter 5 provides students an opportunity to practice extracting conversion factors from text. The Martion by Andy Weir could be used any number of ways in lecture. In particular, the storyline where the main character uses hydrazine to make water (Log Entry: Sol 30) could be read in class and returned to throughout the semester on topics such as Lewis structures, chemical equations, and gas laws. Steelheart by Brandon Sanderson is the first novel of a sci-fi trilogy in which one character is able to turn any substance to steel and another wonders at technology which seems to defy the law of conservation of mass (chapter 34). The Canon by Natalie Angier contains accessible and humorous introductions to the atoms, subatomic particles, and the basics of bonding (chapters 4-5). 163 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

Various passages in The Poisoner’s Handbook by Deborah Blum and The Sweetness at the Bottom of the Pie by Alan Bradley can be laced throughout lectures to practice converting chemical names to formulas and descriptions of reactions into chemical equations. For advanced courses, passages from Copenhagen by Michael Frayn (a Tonyaward winning play about a meeting between Bohr and Heisenberg during World War II that historians still wonder about) may be read or performed as readers theater to illustrate or introduce Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.


References 1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Next Generation Science Standards: For states, by states; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, 2013. Straits, W.; Nichols, S. Literature Circles for Science NSTA Science and Children: Methods and Strategies. http://www.nsta.org/publications/news/ story.aspx?id=52824 (accessed June 12, 2017). Putt, S. Using Science Fiction to Teach Science Facts, Cornerstone: A Collection of Scholarly and Creative Works; Minnesota State University: Mankato, 2011. Ketchen, C. Teaching Science with Science Fiction; MS Thesis, Montana State University, 2014. Fink, L. S. Finding the Science Behind Science Fiction through Paired Readings. http://www.readwritethink.org/resources/resourceprint.html?id=927 (accessed June 12, 2017). Ullery, J. Road Tested / When Science Meets Fiction. Education Update 2017, 59. Worth, K. Winokur, J. Crissman, S. Heller-Winokur, M. Davis, M. The Essentials of Science and Literacy: A Guide for Teachers; Heinemann: Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 2009. Cox, C. A. Literature-Based Teaching in the Content Areas; SAGE Publications, Inc: Thousand Oaks, California, 2011. Sorvik, G. O.; Mork, S. M. Scientific literacy as social practice: Implications for reading and writing in science classrooms. NorDiNa (Nordic Studies in Science Education) 2017, 13, 268–281. Reardon, S. F.; Valentino, R. A.; Shores, K. A. The Future of Children 2012, 22, 17. Baer, J. D.; Cook, A. L.; Baldi, S. The Literacy of America’s College Students; American Institutes for Research: Washington, DC, 2006. Boswell, H. C.; Seegmiller, T. The American Biology Teacher 2016, 78, 664. Daniels, H. Literature Circles: Voice and Choice in Book Clubs and Reading Groups; Stenhouse Publishers: Portland, ME, 2002. Miller, Literature Circles Roles for Science Vocabulary; The Science Teacher: Washington, DC, 2007. Straits, W. A Literature Circles Approach to Understanding Science as a Human Endeavor. Science Scope 2007, 31, 32–36. 164 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


16. Hron, A.; Kurbjuhn, I.; Mandl, H.; Schnotz, W. Advances in Psychology 1985, 29, 221. 17. Eddy, J. K.; Glass, A. L. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1981, 20, 333.

165 Kloepper and Crawford; Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

Liberal Arts Reading Strategies for the High School and University

Recommend Documents