analysis and examination of other body fluids. Biology is required for examinations of human tissue, physiological fluids, vollen. and leaves. Phvsics is used in crime scene recon&ction, velocity analysis, and meterology and for determinina the amount and direction of force. Materials science is iequired during the examination of concrete, paint, glass, dyes, and ceramics. Anthropology relates to the examination of teeth, hite marks, and hair. Statistics and probability are important when considering the frequency of occurrence of artifacts and distribution patterns. Geology and microscopy are other important disciplines. Special Problems and Consideralions Attributes that make forensic chemistry challenging, and a t times frustrating, are illustrated by some of the special orohlems faced in the laboratorv. Consider the orohlem of sample diversity. This is as important as any other in making forensic chemistry fascinating to the lay person and the practitioner, hut a t the same time it produces many problems. Anvthina in the environment is ootentiallv a forensic sample and may he the subject of an examination. Samples, often with no history, are brought into the laboratory possibly after having been handled by one or more persons. The samples may be altered inadvertently or knowingly. Samples may he contaminated. The environment may interfere with the sample during the processing of physical evidence. Only rarely does one have any control over the size of the sample. For example, a gun powder residue on a victim's clothing contains a limited amount of material. One would want to do chemical testing for cellulose nitrate and sodium and potassium nitrate or nitrite. Chemical tests for those components are relatively straightforward. One may want to examine the pattern of disbursement of particles around the wound hole. This is a typical physical examination. Then one might need to form an opinion about the distance from which the gun was fired. All of these must be done with a small amount of sample. This example illustrates the multidisciplinary approach required by small samples. If one examines several fragments of metal, can one draw conclusions regarding some missing fragments? There is a very strong temptation to do so, especially when all the fraements in hand exhibit uniform nronerties. T o extraoolate and conclude that all missing pirtiiles are identical has caused manv nrohlems and is an undesirable oractice. Quite often one has-no information other than thadthe parti&lar material was found at the crime scene, and the question is, ..Is it rrlevant to thesperifiratiun ofeventsthat took placr at somr time in thr past?" 'l'his is pnhnhly the most rhallenring area for the forensic chemist. There are some important questions in which the chemist must always be aware. One is the nature of the examination. A result must be evaluated and interpreted in light of all information available to the investieator and the forensic chemist. This evaluation and interp;etation is the heart of the whole nrocess and reauires the chemist to he imaeina" tive, creative, and willing to pursue the problem to its conclusion. Situations arise where analytical results are very similar, hut conclusions vary. For instance, paint samples may exhibit nearly the same infrared spectrum but have a different color. Those who rely only upon similarities, as demonstrated by the instrumental data, may have difficulties of this kind. There may he subtle differences, too. Sometimes those small differences may appear not to he significant. The question is, "Are they relevant to the situation?" One must he careful to explain apparent unusual characteristics. Uniqueness literally means "one of a kind." I t is easy to say that something is unique, hut extremely difficult to prove. If one does not have resources to justify such a claim, the claim should not he made. Thus, one may need to approach the problem of demonstrating uniqueness from a different perspective. 1044
Journal of Chemical Education
After one does all of one's work. one must renort the results. One must work within the ruies of law to aslure that the results are accentable to the court. For instance. if one testifies that marijuana was present in a sample, it isn't sufficient to say, "The green material is 'grass' or 'pot'." Such a statement doesn't meet legal requirements. While some states are more rigid than others in this regard, one must mention either the chemical constituents or perhaps the official name of the plant that was examined. There may he another problem with the wording of a given response or of a written report. Sometimes the scientific point is correct, hut from the legal perspective i t may not only he improper and inadmissible but also devastating to the person for whom the report was written because it is vulnerable to legal attack. Ouallflcatlons for the Profession Having discussed typical problems and characteristics of the profession and having given some examples of the types of examination that are undertaken by chemists, we now turn our attention to the qualificationsneeded for a typical position. Of course, the candidate must have a solid and high quality scientific background and an education that exhibits the multidisciolinarv aooroach noted earlier. There must he .. substantial strength in chemistry; we suggest an ACS-certified decree a t the undereraduate level. The candidate must iave the ability to think creatively. Too often we rely on instruments, without evaluating their limitations. The human computer, the brain, remains one's most valuable tool. Employers seek persons who continually search for new and different methods, different applications, or different perspectives. They want people who seek opportunities to apply known techniques in novel ways, for instance. The candidate must exhibit good judgment. We stress the very serious concern that one avoid pushbutton technology for the sake of heine "modern." There is a temotation to produce massive amounts of data, the assumptionbeing that the more data one produces, the better the result. We assert that it is the quality of the data that defines the quality of the result. I t is the quality of the data that vroduces confidence in the answer br co&sion. Finally, we wish to suggest that the forensic chemist must he able to work independently. The chemist frequently works with others, often on the same case, and i t is true that beeinning chemists often work with a senior laboratorv oerson. ~evertheless,the person who is sufficiently mature, motivated. insiehtful. and efficient to work hv her or himself has a talent that will be recognized.
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The Literature of Forensic Science Kelth 0. Berry University of Puget Sound Tacoma. WA 98416
When I brgan tearhing forensic science several years ago, 1 found that one of the most difficult problems I faced was to find and acquire suitable and modern references, both for mv own use and as references that I could cite for student examination. Since any teacher interested in presenting a course for students will face that same problem, this paper contains sueeestions to helo them eet started. Local. municipal, state, or federal crim'e lahotkories can provide some information. My experience has been that criminalists and
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lahoratory directors have been willing to correspond, particularly when specific questions were addressed to them and when specific ohjectives for a visit or conversation are indicated. Any visit to a crime lahoratory should include time observing the hooks and periodicals found in the library facility. Note the general areas covered by their literature and identify books and periodicals that might be helpful to vou or vour students. " or en sic science is characterized by the great breadth of interest reauired of the uractitioner. While most ~ e r s o n s reading thismanuscript will he interested in chemical applications in the lahoratory, many students will be interested in other science areas. Thus, references should not be confined only to those topics that are clearly chemical in nature. Journals
There are four journals that provide much important current research information (1-4). There are other journals that reuort research results and some summarv or review articles of interest hut that are not intended p;imarily for forensic scientists. Manv chemistw include infor. iournals " mation of interest to crime laboratory personnel, for instance. These journals are most easily accessed via Chemical Abstracts. Finally, the Journal of Police Science and Administration publishes a few articles of interest to the forensic scientist, provides much information about other related activities, and has an abstracting service included in each issue (5). History and Background Materlal
Probably the most easily read book, and one that high school students and others will find quite fascinating is the publication by Kind and Overman (6). Stuart Kind has had an outstanding career as a forensic chemist in England and is well acquainted with the field. This hook is of interest not only because of the general nature of the material hut also in thrinlormation an2 attitudes it ronveys about the practire of forensic chemistry and the analysis of physical evidence. I urge anyone thinking about the profesiion of forensic science, or about presenting either a course, or relevant material. to read this book and eain the uersuective it orovides. 'There are two other boiks, bothhy jurgen ~ h b r w a l dthat , urovide much information of a historical nature (7.8).These books read like sets of short stories that are developed around important scientific advances that lead to the solution of pariicular, historically important, crimes. Finally, I recommend several other descriutions of forensic science that have appeared in the popula; literature during the past decade (9-12). There is also a compilation of particular interest to those who wish a little deeper understanding of some major topics in forensic science. The "Forensic Science Handbook" has chapters written by acknowledged experts in the field (13).
his or her ohjectives. The book by Walton assumes less background than that by James et al. (18,19). A lahoratory hook of a different kind is represented by those workbooks in which typical problems are provided in the form of photographic data. Problems are treated by answering questions related to the information presented as maps, diagrams, drawings, or photographs with brief descriptions and problem assignments. Since the prohlems come, generally, from real cases, and the photographs are of real evidence, the hooks provide a feeling of reality or currency that helps stimulate the student (20,21). References and Data Collections
One typical activity that is likely to he of interest to most chemistry teachers is t o display ultraviolet-visible or infrared spectra of chemically important compounds that may he encountered in the crime lahoratory (22-24). I recommend the several articles related to inks (chromatography) or drugs (spectrophotometry and chromatography) that are OF CHEMICAL to he found in past issues of the JOURNAL EDUCATION.A second uossihilitv is to ask someone a t a lahoratory or local university to provide spectra of a typical drue mixture or of individual drues that vou mieht reauire. Thesespectra can be provided as tlhe hasidfor some excellent comparison experiments. Comparison of the spectra of drugs is a typical example of a common, hut important, process in the crime laboratory. In the area of chemistry, one of the most prominent areas for study is in the identification of drugs of abuse and the analvsis for toxic materials. both in hodv fluids and in forms in wkich the drugs would bk found on t i e street. I used three references for identification of drues. their names and structures, and their physiological acti& (25-27). Biological Methods
There may he some who have a need or desire to consider experiments relatedto biology as well as chemistry. There are three resources that may be valuable in this regard. The catalogs from Carolina Biological Supply Co. and other hiological supply houses include information on ordering kits for such things as blood typing. Two other publications are available that describe experimental details for comparison of blood and biological fluids in the laboratory (28, 29). These are very important experiments in the crime laboratory and sufficient details are given in these hooks for the teacher to produce suitable results. There have been several suaaestions about the course material that teachers may wanti; include in modules, units, or courses relating to forensic science (30-34). Literature Cited (1) Jovrnolofthc forensic Science Sueieiy, published by the Forende Science Society, "Clarke House" 1sA Mount Parade, Harmgate, North Yorkshire England. HGL
."'..
,nv
General References and Textbooks
There are essentially three textbooks available for the advanred high school o; introductory college level (1.1-16). I have used each ot these in classes intended for rvllege freshman, nonscience majors. They are listed in order ofincreasing rigor, in my opinion. The last hook citation (17) is an invaluable reference for the "criminalist and field investigator."
(21 Journal of forensic Sciences, Publication of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences,published by American Society for Testing M a t e d . 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103. (3) Journalofthsconodionsociaty offorensir Srience,Can. Soc, ofFor.Sci.SuiteM3, Jelnor Bidg., 171 Nepean St.,Ottawa, Ontario, Csn. K2P 084. (11 Forensic Science Infsmofiond, Elsevier Publ. Co., 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York,
Doubleday. Garden City, NY, 1972. (7) ~ h ~ ~ ~J.,a"Crime l d . and Science," Harwurt, Brace. Jovanovich. New York, 1967. 181 J.. "The Centurv of the Detective." Hsreourt, Brace, Jovsnwich, New , ~Thorwsld. , Ymk, 1965: (9) Gecber, S. M.(Editor), "Chemistry and Crime." American Chemieal Soci~tv,Washington, D.C., 1983. (10) Conniff, R.;'21at Cmtury Crime-Stopen." Sci. Dig, 90(8), 60 (19821. (11) .'Science Applied to Forensics."Indus. Res.. 19W) (Nov 15.19771. (121 Carlson,C.,"AnalyzingtheEndence,"SGwest. 16021(April 19811,publiahedby the American Chemisal Society (13) Ssfenfein, R. (Editor). T o m i e Science Handbook." Prentiee-Hall, Englimd ~~~~
Laboratory Books
There are two laboratory books that may he valuable to those wishing to teach courses in the area of forensic science; one might also note the assignments found in the hook by O'Brien and Sullivan (16).These lahoratory hooks provide a general overview and a good selection of experiments from which the instructor can select those that are appropriate for
Ciiffs,NJ,
1982.
(14) O'B~ien,K.P..ananulliuan,R.C.,"Crimindistics."2nded.,HolbrookPrera,Boaton,
,*"A ,., ."-= .",".
(U)Saferatein, R., "Criminalistics." 2nd ed.. Prentiee-Hall, Englcwaod Cliffs, NJ, 1981.
Volume 62
Number 12
December 1985
1045
