Living Oceans - ACS Publications - American Chemical Society

Chapter 6

Living Oceans

Downloaded by UNIV OF FLORIDA on December 11, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date (Web): October 23, 2017 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2017-1247.ch006

N. A. Ingram* University of New England, 11 Hills Beach Road, Biddeford, Maine 04005, United States *E-mail: [email protected].

The world’s oceans encompass more than 70% of the Earth’s surface. These bodies of water have historically acted as a significant buffer against anthropogenic carbon emissions, however this continuous inundation is now changing the chemistry of the marine ecosystems. Exploitation of the oceans is widespread, including but not limited to, the buffering ability, overfishing, and habitat destruction. Until very recently, climate policy pertaining to the marine environment has been negligible. Despite the lack of conservation efforts on the part of policymakers, smaller groups have been making strides in marine protection and fisheries management. As the momentum has grown, ocean policy has finally been brought to the forefront and has been included in the Paris Agreement. As the appre of the oceans grows, so does the possibility for a better tomorrow.

Introduction In November of 2013, I attended the 19th Conference of Parties (COP19) as an American Chemical Society student representative. At the time, I was about to complete my Bachelor’s Degree in Marine Science and was very interested in climate policy pertaining to marine ecosystems. Armed with enthusiasm and an understanding of the importance of Earth’s oceans, I entered the convention in Warsaw, Poland and was disappointed to find that the presence of ocean-centric policy was negligible. The world’s oceans make up more than 70% of the Earth’s surface. Totaling nearly 1.35 billion cubic kilometers in volume, these waters influence global weather patterns, offer habitat to more than 25% of all known species, and serve as the best natural defense against the effects of climate change. In the past century, the global temperature has increased by one degree celsius, © 2017 American Chemical Society Peterman et al.; Climate Change Literacy and Education The Science and Perspectives from the Global Stage Volume 1 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


however without the buffering ability of our oceans, that increase would have been an astonishing 36 degrees celsius. Despite all this, it was still overlooked in the world of climate policy (1–3). The 2013 conference commenced in the aftermath of Typhoon Haiyan, which had struck the Philippines mere days before the opening of the convention. One of the most powerful storms on record, leaving 14 million Filipinos affected in its wake, it seemed like nature’s perfect call to action as the delegates gathered to discuss climate policy and mitigation; but this was not the case. On “Ocean Day” at COP19, some of the concerns were addressed but were quickly drowned out by the multitude of other climate policy issues. As time has progressed, however, the concern for our oceans has moved closer to the forefront. At the 2015 COP21 in Paris, over 150 parties and organizations—ranging from governments and NGOs to the private sector—came together to highlight the challenges facing the oceans. In addition to supporting the adoption of the Paris Agreement, the International Coastal and Ocean Organization (Global Ocean Forum) was able to release a roadmap for Global Climate Action, depicting actions to be taken in the next five years (4). One of the most important points of this roadmap is the understanding that we need to “do more, faster, and now” (4). This recognition is monumental in the fight against climate change. The recent ratification of the Paris Agreement by the United States and China, paired with this motivated International Coastal and Ocean Organization, shows more progress than I could have ever hoped for in a single year. Since those policies have yet to be enforced though, I wanted to address some of the changes happening within the oceans and the mitigation efforts currently being used to combat those changes.

Recent Conservation Efforts Recently, major progress has been made in preserving the various marine areas. The most notable preservation effort has been the addition of 1,146,798 square kilometers to the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (PMNM), set aside by President Barack Obama in August of 2016 (5). A Marine National Monument is a protected marine region designated via Presidential Proclamations, in order to protect the ecosystem, promote scientific research, and usher in a greater public understanding of the region. The PMNM now encompasses 1,508,870 square kilometers, making it the largest protected area in the world (5). This area is also important, because it is one of three UNESCO World Heritage sites within the United States of America. UNESCO, or the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, determines landmarks with exceptional cultural, historical, or scientific significance (6). Once a site is recognized as a World Heritage site, it is legally protected by international treaties. Since its formation in 2005, the World Heritage Marine Programme has designated 49 World Heritage Marine sites spanning 36 countries, including well-known regions such as the Great Barrier Reef and the Galapagos Islands (6). The future for marine conservation looks a bit brighter thanks to the efforts of the UNESCO World Heritage Programme. Their goal is to conserve 10% of 80 Peterman et al.; Climate Change Literacy and Education The Science and Perspectives from the Global Stage Volume 1 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


all coastal and marine areas, “especially those of high importance to biodiversity and ecosystem services [that are] required to be conserved through effective, equitable management that includes area-based conservation measures that are integrated into the wider seascape” (7). The 49 sites currently protected make up approximately 20% of all the world’s Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). MPAs indicate any clearly defined marine area that is dedicated and managed with the intention of achieving long-term conservation (8). The World Heritage Programme knows that they are in a high profile position and aim to use that to their advantage, leading by example to raise the bar on management efficacy. Seeing this sort of enthusiasm to take the reins and show others that well- managed conservation is within reach offers hope for a healthier environment in the future. In their 2016 Best Practice Guide, the World Heritage Marine Programme stated that they hoped to “spur thinking and inform practice in MPA management worldwide” (8). This thinking is essential because MPAs serve as very important havens for the flora and fauna residing in our oceans, which in turn, benefit humans by replenishing fish populations targeted by the global fishing industry. MPAs are generally put into place for two primary reasons: nature conservation and/or fisheries management. The U.S. has more than 1,600 MPAs in place currently, though the severity of management varies depending on the area (9). Size, shape, and regulations applied to the region are tailored for each individual MPA. The primary concern for these protected regions is to help maintain the biodiversity of the designated area. For example, even though they only take up 1% of the seafloor, reefs are home to more than 25% of all marine organisms (10). This is an invaluable area for the health of the overall ecosystem. Often, these MPAs—particularly coral reef ecosystems—provide not only habitat for the organisms but coastal protection, food, employment opportunities for the local community, and possible medicinal sources (11). Coral reefs are some of the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Acidification of the oceans, paired with increasing water temperatures, has taken a devastating toll on the coral reefs worldwide.

Ocean Acidification In the time spanning between 2000 and 2007, the world’s oceans absorbed approximately 25% of all the carbon dioxide emitted via human activities (12). The oceans are, in fact, the world’s largest and most reliable carbon sink. Unfortunately, in the process of scrubbing away our pollution, the carbon dioxide solubilized by the oceans waters is transformed into carbonic acid (H2CO3), which in turn dissociates into H+ ions and bicarbonate (HCO3-). The organisms responsible for the majority of CO2 absorption range from plankton and bacteria to seagrasses and mangroves (13). The acidification hinders the calcification of marine organisms such as zooplankton and corals, which depend on a calcareous outer shell for protection and structure. Zooplankton and corals are vital to the health of worldwide ecosystems; Zooplankton make up a very important biomass at the base of the food web, while coral reefs provide habitat for a wide variety of marine plants and animals. 81 Peterman et al.; Climate Change Literacy and Education The Science and Perspectives from the Global Stage Volume 1 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


Corals are extra sensitive to water changes because of their symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae, a photosynthetic algae that inhabits the coral and in turn provides food for the coral. During periods of stress, such as high temperatures or increased acidity, the zooxanthellae is expelled from the corals, leaving the corals without a means of acquiring nutrients; a process known as “bleaching” (14). Without the zooxanthellae, the coral cannot sustain the diverse ecosystem usually associated with coral reefs. Patricio Bernal, Assistant Director-General of UNESCO, stated that “each day we are essentially dumping 25 million tons of carbon into the ocean.” This level of carbon absorption is unsustainable and will result in irreversible damage to these living habitats if not addressed by the international community. A paper published by Silverman, et al in 2009 indicated that coral reefs could actually shift from a net growth to net dissolution before the end of this century if the current warming and acidification trends continue as predicted (15). If no mitigation efforts are made and global carbon emissions remain unchecked, projections show that by 2050, the world’s oceans could reach pH levels more extreme than at any time in the previous 20 million years (16). To better understand this phenomenon and how to best mitigate the effects, more research is needed. In 2015, two separate assessments found human populations at risk of losing their livelihoods to acidification. At COP21 in 2015, a change in “ocean chemistry” was identified as a dangerous consequence that requires urgent action (4). This kind of language and action breathes new life into the emissions reduction and marine conservation efforts that have been desperately needed for years. Presently, there is no surefire way to reverse the acidification, but decreasing the carbon emissions is a big step to mitigate further damage of marine ecosystems.

The Future of Marine Protected Areas In 2011, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) released a publication bringing attention to how the matter of acidification is overlooked during policy discussions within the UNFCCC. Although bringing this issue forward did not elicit an immediate response from policymakers, funding for research focusing on the issue has gained momentum. In recent years, countless studies have been done to determine the most effective way to set up MPAs to maximize conservation efforts. With the leadership of the World Heritage Marine Programme and more backing from the UNFCCC, the potential for progress is better than ever. In an ideal situation, 20–30% of all different habitat types should be included in MPAs in order to preserve biodiversity and ecological functions (11, 17). Some of these habitats include coral reefs, seagrass beds, nursery spawning grounds, areas with high rates of endemism, and mangrove communities (11, 18). The idea is that as habitat diversity and complexity increase, so does species diversity, ultimately achieving a greater conservation of biodiversity (11, 19). In addition to protecting various communities of marine organisms, developing these MPAs has the potential to aid the structure of coastlines. Mangrove communities provide much-needed 82 Peterman et al.; Climate Change Literacy and Education The Science and Perspectives from the Global Stage Volume 1 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

structure to their environments, preventing erosion and offering a buffer in severe weather events. Protecting these mangroves, in turn, protects the coastal residents.


Marine Protected Areas and Overfishing While it may seem paradoxical that the fishing community would benefit from creating protected reserves, it is possible. By giving the fish a safe place to spawn and grow, the population increases and creates a “spillover” effect. This occurs when the population is so robust that some of the individuals are pushed out of the MPA and into fishing grounds. By the time the fishermen gain access to fish, their prey are of a higher quality than would be found among stressed and overfished stock. It also allows for a more diverse spectrum of fish, balancing out the fishing pressures so that one stock is not continually targeted and therefore overfished. While the seas seem full of fish, the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), recently reported that more than 70% of the world’s fisheries range from “fully exploited” to “significantly depleted” (20). In 2014, the collective fishing industries of the world harvested 93,445,234 tonnes of fish from the wild populations in the oceans (21). In 2004, one in every five people in the world relied on fish for their main source of nutrients, specifically protein (22). Since 2004, the fishing industry has only increased, especially in Asia, where more than 1 billion people depend on fish for their diet (22). Developing countries are responsible for more than 60% of the internationally traded seafood products (23). These areas often do not have strictly enforced fishing regulations, which allows local fishermen to easily overfish the populations without penalty. Supply and demand economics works against these small-scale fishermen all too often, encouraging them to catch more fish than is sustainable even when they know what they are doing is detrimental to the environment. As the market grows, the price per fish decreases, requiring higher fishing yields to reach the same profit. Fishermen who rely on their catch to support their family overfish simply to pay their bills and make ends meet. However, in addition to these paycheck-to-paycheck fishermen, large-scale international fishing fleets also exploit these poorly managed areas, creating a tricky situation for the governing bodies to determine fair and balanced fishing regulations. Often in the fising industry, the monetary value of continuing to seek out fish already deemed unsustainable is greater than the perceived danger to the stock. For example, the Bluefin tuna is currently one of the most sought after fish in the ocean. In 2013, the Pacific Bluefin tuna stock was assessed, determining that the stock has experienced a 96.4% decline since the fish was first targeted in 1970 (24). Even with the knowledge that the population is only 3.6% of the original stock, fishing continues; the selling price is just too attractive. A single Bluefin tuna caught off the northeast coast of Japan was sold to a buyer in Tokyo for the equivalent of U.S. $1.76 million in 2009 (25). Prior to 1970, the commercial price of this fish was U.S. $0.05 per pound, but with the boom of the sushi market, the prices have skyrocketed (26). Between 1970 and 1990, the price for tuna increased 83 Peterman et al.; Climate Change Literacy and Education The Science and Perspectives from the Global Stage Volume 1 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

10,000 fold (26). Implementing strict fishing regulations in order to protect these populations is nearly impossible with such a profitable subject.


Best Defense Against Climate Change? Management Why spend so much time and effort discussing overfishing in a climate science-based publication? It is because strict fisheries management is, in fact, the best way to combat the effects of climate change on the fish populations. With so many factors, including, but not limited to, sea temperature increase, acidification, stratification, changing currents, changing food web biomasses, regime changes, and habitat shifts, the future of the marine environment is extremely difficult to predict in the long term. The best way to conserve marine biodiversity and support world fishing demand is to take care of the stocks that are currently on the planet. Like any organism, when stressed, these fish are less resilient to environmental changes when external pressures such as unsustainable fishing practices are applied. Overfishing contributes to reducing populations by physically removing individuals, but this action also affects the remaining population by stressing the fish, reducing the age structure of the population, eliminating the surplus production, and reducing the geographic distribution of the population (27, 28). Put all of those attributes together, and the population is suddenly unable to recover from environmental changes they would easily have adapted to previously. Effective management on every level, from international policy to local government initiatives, is the best way forward. Education can also play a major role, helping to steer the general public away from high-risk products, such as Bluefin tuna, to more sustainable but equally tasty alternatives, such as Albacore tuna.

International Cooperation for Conservation Bluefin tuna is a great example of a fish that is in trouble and requires international conservation cooperation. These animals are highly migratory and currently listed as an endangered species. Typically, highly migratory species have biological and ecological factors that lead them across what we determine to be legal boundaries separating the waters of various nations (24). Their journey through different zones makes them more susceptible to fishing pressures due to the fact that each nation manages their waters with varying levels of severity. While they may be safe in one region, this does not mean that the same standard is upheld in the waters that they traverse the next day. In order to combat the decline of Atlantic tuna, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) was formed in 1969. The ICCAT consists of 50 countries, all of which began enforcing catch limits starting in 1998 (29). The work being done by this group inspires hope for the future of Atlantic tuna. They have limited total allowable catch quotas with the intention of rebuilding the stock by 2022 (29). Given that these fish are highly migratory, collecting accurate data is admittedly difficult, but even with that margin of error, the tuna populations are showing 84 Peterman et al.; Climate Change Literacy and Education The Science and Perspectives from the Global Stage Volume 1 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.

positive growth and are on their way to achieving the 2022 goal. This successful cooperation offers high hopes for international partnership to combat global issues pertaining to our oceans.


Sea Level Rise Mitigating the effects of fishing and climate change on these marine environments is essential to the survival of not only the fish, but also the people depending upon them for their livelihood. Struggling economies resulting from declining fishing stocks are unfortunately not our only concern; loss of coastline due to the inundation of water is a compounding factor in the plight of coastal communities. Anthropogenic emissions have overwhelmed the buffering system of the oceans and have begun increasing the volume of these bodies of water through melting of the polar ice sheets and thermal expansion of the water. Though it is the most commonly known source of sea level rise, the melting of polar ice is only responsible for one-fifth of the global increase since 1992 (30). Thermal expansion is related to the density of water; cold seawater has the greatest density while warm freshwater has the least density. As the oceans absorb heat, the density decreases leading to an increase in the volume of the water. This expansion is the driving force behind the majority of the current and future sea level rise. After years of careless air pollution, we have inadvertently triggered a positive feedback loop pertaining to sea level rise. Much like the way oceans offer a buffer for CO2 and heat, the ice caps helped safeguard our planet from solar radiation. The bright white of the ice and snow reflects incoming solar radiation, relying on the albedo effect (31). Warmer temperatures result in increased ice melt and decreased coverage of this highly reflective region, resulting in more solar energy absorbed by the Earth, resulting in warmer temperatures, and so on. At the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) World Conservation Congress in September 2016, Dr. Charles Fletcher, a professor at the University of Hawaii, stated the simple reality of the sea level situation: “If you wage war with water, you will lose, and this tells us that we must yield and elevate” (32).

Implications of Sea Level Rise Worldwide, approximately 40% of all people live within 100 kilometers of a coastline (33). The current projection has sea level increasing by more than one meter worldwide by the year 2100 (34). That sort of rise puts an overwhelmingly large number of people in jeopardy. While one meter may not seem very alarming, it should be noted that 10 percent of the world’s population lives in coastal zones with less than ten meters elevation (34). That’s more than 700 million people potentially displaced within the next 80 years. The loss of habitable land and cost of relocation have been projected to cost up to 9.3% of the global GDP annually (35). Within the past few years, sea level rise has crossed over from being a dreaded theoretical future to a very real problem that requires immediate action. While Kevin Costner will never have to reprise his lead role in Waterworld to survive 85 Peterman et al.; Climate Change Literacy and Education The Science and Perspectives from the Global Stage Volume 1 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


the rise, loss of coastline is predicted to be very significant. In the U.S. alone, 150 million Americans are living on land that will be submerged or exposed to chronic flooding by the year 2100 (36). Predictions, no matter how accurate and well researched, can often be dismissed or scoffed at, however real loss of habitable land is hard to argue. Some of the first victims include the Solomon Islands, the Marshall Islands, and unexpectedly, a small community in Northwest Alaska named Kivalina. In the Solomon Islands, five uninhabited islands have disappeared, and two inhabited islands have had entire villages washed into the sea, requiring the relocation of all the villagers (37). The Marshall Islands have been suffering extreme inundation for years, as most of the 1,000 islands are only approximately six feet above sea level (38). While climate policy is being discussed, debated, revised, voted upon, and then possibly ratified, the Marshallese are dealing with the loss of their homes every day. As the foreign minister of the Marshall Islands, Tony deBrum, frankly stated “It does not make sense for us to go to [climate conferences] and come back with something that says “In a few years’ time, your country is going to be underwater”...We see the damage occurring now. We’re trying to beat back the sea.” (38). Colder climates are not immune to the land loss, either. Sea level rise in Northwest Alaska, along with accelerated permafrost melt, has resulted in villages falling into the sea. The Kivalina whaling community recently voted to relocate due to the danger of their village being lost to the sea, but they are facing problems finding the funds to make the move. “There’s no government agency that has the responsibility to relocate a community, nor the funding to do it.” says Robin Bronen, the Director of the Alaska Immigration Justice Project (39). The governments of the world have not anticipated this inevitable issue, and it is something that needs to be addressed on the national and global scale as soon as possible. The roadmap for Global Climate Action has laid out a plan for helping small island developing states (SIDS), that are likely to suffer the most from loss of coastline. Classic strategies such as mitigation and adaptation are outlined within the roadmap, but it goes beyond that with plans of how to assist SIDS for 183 different countries when their homes are inevitably inundated with seawater. Determining contingencies for climate-induced refugees and migrants requires international cooperation. Climate change does not respect national boundaries and cannot be treated as if it does. The roadmap also instructs that these SIDS should receive assistance in the form of “knowledge, tools, and scientific and political expertise to implement mitigation and adaptation measures, develop adaptive management capacity, early warning systems, and disaster risk reduction, and...share knowledge among all countries.” (40). All countries, no matter the size, need to have the capability to counter climate change.

Conclusion Greater awareness for the oceans’ importance in the process of climate change is essential as we move forward. Recognition, education, and conservation are all stepping stones to reaching an all-encompassing and effective climate 86 Peterman et al.; Climate Change Literacy and Education The Science and Perspectives from the Global Stage Volume 1 ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017.


policy. The ratification of the Paris Agreement is a great indicator that the worldwide mentality towards climate change is shifting. Instead of continuously being on the back burner, this issue is finally being taken seriously. Not only are the most prominent governing bodies setting goals for themselves, they are acknowledging the importance of smaller players at the table who do not always have representation, such as SIDS and even the marine ecosystems. A line in the most recent IUCN publication pointedly summarizes how we, as a world, have treated the Earth’s oceans. It states “we perhaps haven’t realized the gross effect we are having on the oceans, we don’t appreciate what they do for us” (40), but I believe that we are making progress. The recent agreements, treaties, and roadmaps show that our understanding and appreciation for these bodies of water are growing, and with that, so is the possibility for a better tomorrow. Disclaimer: The views expressed in this chapter are not necessarily the views of the author’s current place of employment.

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Living Oceans - ACS Publications - American Chemical Society

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