Manipulating Electron Transfer in Hybrid ZnOâAu ... - ACS Publications

Article pubs.acs.org/JPCC

Manipulating Electron Transfer in Hybrid ZnO−Au Nanostructures: Size of Gold Matters Dewan S. Rahman and Sujit Kumar Ghosh* Department of Chemistry, Assam University, Silchar 788011, India S Supporting Information *

ABSTRACT: Hybrid semiconductor−plasmonic metal nanostructures (NSs) tailoring of zinc oxide−gold (ZnO−Au) have been synthesized by direct addition of an aliquot of ZnO quantum dots (QDs) to aqueous dispersions of gold nanoparticles (NPs) of five different sizes. Gold nanoparticles of variable sizes have been prepared by Frens’ citrate reduction procedure and ZnO QDs by alkaline hydrolysis of zinc acetate dihydrate in methanol. The optical properties of hybrid ZnO− Au nanostructures have been explored by absorption, photoluminescence, and Raman spectroscopy; the intrinsic changes in the optical characteristics of the individual components reflect strong interfacial interaction between ZnO and Au nanostructures. The binding of ZnO QDs to the colloidal gold particles has further been elucidated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry measurements. The morphology and crystallinity of the ZnO−Au NSs have been characterized by transmission electron microscopy, high resolution transmission electron microscopy, selected area electron diffraction, and X-ray diffraction techniques. Absorption spectral studies have revealed that ZnO QDs attached on the size-specific Au NPs elicites the modification of band gap in hybrid semiconductor−metal nanostructures. The catalytic activities of the as-prepared ZnO−Au NSs consisting of gold nanoparticles of variable sizes have been probed by employing photochemical decomposition of Evans blue under visible light irradiation as the model reaction. Finally, the trends in the alteration of different interaction parameters in structuring hybrid semiconductor−metal nanostructures with the band gap have been correlated. flexibility, and the possibility to alter its properties by morphological tuneability.7 Moreover, the unique physicochemical properties, such as a range of conductivity from metallicity to insulating, high transparency, ferromagnetism at ambient temperature, piezoelectricity, and huge magnetooptic and chemical sensitivity, deserve the possibility of using ZnO nanoclusters in optoelectronics, catalysis, sensors, transducers, and biomedical sciences.8 On the other hand, gold, at the nanometer size regime, exhibits characteristic surface plasmon resonance in the visible-NIR region that is absent in the individual atom as well as in their bulk.9 Furthermore, many excellent properties, such as easy reductive synthetic strategy to desired morphology, water-solubility, high conductivity, high chemical stability, significant biocompatibility, and rich surface chemistry of nanoscale gold particles, have encouraged their utilizations in areas, such as ferrofluids, biosensing and medical imaging, targeted drug delivery, photodynamic therapy, and catalysis.10 On the basis of these perspectives, the construction of hybrid assemblies by self−organization of semiconducting ZnO and plasmonic Au particles is important as the transfer of

1. INTRODUCTION In recent years, creation of hybrid nanostructures has paved an effective approach not only for harvesting multifunctionalities contributed from the individual components but also producing enhanced or new physicochemical properties due to synergistic effects between different components.1,2 These hybrids assemblies at the nanoscale dimension exhibit new optical, electrical, magnetic, mechanical, chemical, and thermodynamic properties that can be tuned by controlling their composition, size, shape, and organization at the nanoscale.3,4 The tunable properties along with the chemical and biological accessibility open up new opportunities to widespread their interest in a diverse range of niche applications.5 The design and fabrication of hybrid semiconductor−noble metal nanostructures with controlled morphologies imbue significant interest in fabricating state-of-the-art optoelectronic and nanophotonic devices, such as plasmonic nanolasers, plasmon-enhanced light-emitting diodes and solar cells, plasmonic emitters of single photons, and quantum devices operating in infrared and terahertz domains.6 Among the semiconductors, zinc oxide (ZnO) at the nanometer size regime has attracted significant interest because of its direct wide band gap (3.37 eV), high exciton binding energy (60 meV), the ease of synthesis due to its structural © XXXX American Chemical Society

Received: April 7, 2016 Revised: June 13, 2016

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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b03551 J. Phys. Chem. C XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

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The Journal of Physical Chemistry C

collection and processing. TEM was carried out on a JEOL JEM-2100 microscope with a magnification of 200 kV. Samples were prepared by placing a drop of solution on a carbon-coated copper grid and dried overnight under vacuum. HRTEM and SAED pattern were obtained using the same instrument. FTIR spectra were recorded in the form of pressed KBr pallets in the range (400−4000 cm−1) in Shimadzu-FTIR Prestige-21 spectrophotometer. Powder X-ray diffraction patterns were obtained using a D8 ADVANCE BROKERaxs X-ray diffractometer with CuKα radiation (λ = 1.4506 Å); data were collected at a scan rate of 0.5° min−1 in the range of 10°−80°. Raman measurements were performed using a micro Raman setup consisting of a spectrometer (LabRAMHR JovinYvon) and a Peltier-cooled charge-coupled device detector. An aircooled argon-ion laser (Ar+·) with a wavelength of 488 nm (2.55 eV) was used as an excitation light source, and a 10× objective with a numerical aperture of 0.9 was used to focus the laser and to collect the scattered light from the sample. Cyclic voltammetry measurements were performed by a CHI-660C electrochemical workstation. Data have been collected using Pt electrodes as working as well as counter electrode and Ag/AgCl electrode (in 0.1 M KCl solution) as the reference electrode at temperature 298 K. Photocatalytic reaction was carried out by a 60 W tungsten lamp (Institute of Electric Light Source, Beijing) that was positioned inside a cylindrical Pyrex vessel and surrounded by a recirculating water jacket (Pyrex) to cool the lamp. A cutoff filter was placed outside the Pyrex jacket to completely remove wavelengths shorter than 400 nm and to ensure that irradiation was achieved by visible light wavelengths only. Making Semiconductor−Metal Nanohybrids. The preparation of ZnO QDs has been carried out by following the recipe of Weller group21 and monodispersed gold nanoparticles of five different sizes by Frens’ citrate reduction method22 as has been described in detail in the Supporting Information. Then, hybrid semiconductor−metal nanostructures have been synthesized by gentle mixing of an aliquot of as-prepared ZnO QDs (16.7 μM) with Au NPs (0.67 μM) of 8, 10, 13, 16, and 25 nm in diameter in different vials to maintain the final volume at 3 mL and were allowed to incubate for overnight under vacuum. The color of the dispersion was changed from red to redish pink to pink at the end of the reaction. The as-synthesized ZnO−Au nanostructures were then employed for further studies.

electrons from plasmon resonant metal surfaces to adjoining semiconductors can dramatically alter their electronic and optical properties and expand the scope of exploring composite nanoclusters in numerous technological applications. A plethora of research activities on ZnO−Au heterostructures have been pursued for the investigation of the physicochemical properties, such as ultrafast separation of photogenerated charge carriers,11 resonance multiphonon Raman signal,12 and formation of Schottky barrier due to partial charge transfer between the metallic component and the support material13 and exploring possible applications in voltammetry,14 plasmoninduced switching,15 photocatalysis,16−18 biosensing,19 diagnosis,20 and so on. Therefore, although many milestones have been crossed in this research arena, the interaction parameters of the binding of the individual components in the heterostuctures in modulating the properties should be investigated to enrich the materials chemistry perspectives. In this article, we have studied the interaction parameters and the band gap tuneability of water-soluble hybrid ZnO−Au NSs by deposition of ZnO QDs onto size-specific gold nanoparticles and their correlation with the photocatalytic activity toward the degradation of dye molecules under visible light irradiation. Aqueous dispersion of size-specific gold nanoparticles and ultrasmall ZnO particles have been synthesized by wet chemical approach and subsequently, the nanostructures were prepared by mixing the metallic and semiconductor particles at a particular composition. The binding of ZnO QDs to the sizespecific gold nanoparticles has been characterized by absorption, photolumincence, Raman spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry (CV), and their morphology and crystallinity have been elucidated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), highresolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. All these characterization techniques, unanimously, substantiate strong interfacial interaction between ZnO and Au in the hetero-nanostructures and point out the possibility of band gap tuneability by varying the size of the gold in the hybrid semiconductor−metal nanostructures. Finally, the modification of the band gap of these nanostructures has been probed by studying the degradation of Evans blue under visible light irradiation.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION Reagents and Instruments. Hydrogen tetrachloroaurate (HAuCl4·3H2O), zinc acetate dihydrate [Zn(OOCCH3)2· 2H2O], trisodium citrate, Evans blue (EB), and potassium hydroxide (KOH) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and used as received. Methanol was purchased from Sisco Research Laboratories Pvt. Ltd., India and was used without further purification. Double distilled water was used during the course of investigation. As it is difficult to dissolve Evans blue (EB) in water but readily in methanol, the stock solution of the dye was prepared in 95/5 (v/v) water−methanol mixture at concentration of 0.1 mM. The temperature was 298 ± 1 K for all the measurements. Absorption spectra were measured in a Perkin Elmer Lambda 750 UV−vis-NIR spectrophotometer using 1 cm quartz cuvette. Photoluminescence spectra were recorded with a PerkinElmer LS-45 spectrofluorimeter equipped with a pulsed xenon lamp and a photomultiplier tube with R-928 spectral response. The spectrofluorimeter was linked to a personal computer and utilized the FL WinLab software package for data

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The changes in the optical characteristics in the formation of ZnO−Au nanostructures by self-organization of metallic and semiconductor nanoparticles have been elucidated by absorption, photoluminescence, and Raman spectroscopy. The absorption spectra of pure ZnO QDs and those after addition of five different sizes of Au NPs are shown in Figure 1. The absorption peak of pure ZnO QDs at around 350 nm (3.54 eV) could be attributed to the well-defined exciton band of the ultrasmall particles.23 Upon addition of gold colloids, it is seen that the excitonic band of ZnO becomes red-shifted and in addition a weak band becomes visible in the range of 500−550 nm (2.48−2.25 eV) that arises due to the localized surface plasmon resonance of spherical gold nanoparticles.9 The appearance of surface plasmon band reveals the presence of metallic gold in ZnO−Au hetero-nanostructures. Upon careful observation, it is noted that the excitonic band of ZnO, consecutively, shifts toward the red and the plasmonic band of B


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until the two systems attain equilibration.31 Therefore, as a result of the cumulative effect of increased refractive index of ZnO around the Au NPs and electron transfer from ZnO to Au NPs, a small red shift (∼2 nm) in the SPR band is observed.32,33 The band gap of semiconductors could be engineered for achieving desired physical properties.34 The electronic structure of semiconductors, such as ZnO, could be depicted by an electron-filled valence band and an empty conduction band. In hybrid semiconductor−plasmonic metal nanocomposites, the photoinduced charge carriers are trapped by the metallic counterparts and become able to promote the interfacial charge−transfer processes.34 The optical band gap has been calculated by fitting the absorption data to the direct band gap transition equation as,35 αhν = A(hν − Eg)1/2, where, α is the absorption coefficient, hν is the photon energy, and A is a constant. The absorption coefficient (α) is defined as α = 2.303 A/L c where A is the absorbance of the sample, c is the loading of sample (g L−1), and L is the path length (= 1 cm). Although, the band gap of ZnO QDs has been calculated to be 3.33 eV, the values of band gap are reduced to approximately 3.21, 3.23, 3.27, 3.28, and 3.30 eV in attachment with the gold nanoparticles of sizes 8, 10, 13, 16, and 25 nm, respectively. Thus, manipulating and guiding photons at the nanoscale inside semiconductor could sensitively be managed with the assistance of plasmonics.36 A picturesque detail of the energy band diagram of the semiconductor−metal nanocomposites consisting of ZnO QDs and Au nanoparticles of variable sizes has been presented in Scheme 1. The morphology and crystallinity of the ZnO QDs and representative ZnO−Au heterostructures (containing Au NPs from set B) have been illustrated in Figure 2. Transmission electron micrograph of ZnO QDs (panel a) shows that particles are quasi-spherical with average diameter 3 ± 0.5 nm. Representative TEM image of the ZnO−Au heterostructures (panel b) clearly displays a high coverage of ZnO QDs deposited on the surfaces of the Au NPs with overall diameter approximately 16 ± 4 nm. Typical high-resolution TEM image of ZnO QDs (panel c) shows the distance between two adjacent planes as 0.26 nm, corresponding to (002) planes in wurtzite ZnO.34 The high-resolution image of ZnO−Au

Figure 1. Absorption spectra of ZnO QDs (16.7 μM) in the absence and presence of Au NPs (0.67 μM) of five different sizes. Inset shows the change in the surface plasmon band of Au NPs (set B) upon interaction with the ZnO QDs.

gold shifts toward the blue as the size of the noble metal nanoparticles decreases. The red shift of the ZnO QDs upon addition of gold colloids reflects the strong interfacial interaction between semiconductor ZnO and metallic Au components in producing new heterostructures.24 Inset shows the change in the surface plasmon band of gold nanoparticles (set B) upon addition of ZnO QDs. The surface plasmon band of gold sol (trace a) exhibits a maximum at 519 nm (2.39 eV). When ZnO QDs are added to the gold sol (trace b), the plasmon band of the metal particles broadens and shifts toward higher wavelengths at 521 nm (2.38 eV).25,26 It has been seen that the relative shift of surface plasmon band increases with increase in size of the particles as well as with the refractive index of the surrounding medium.27,28 In the present experiment, the refractive index of ZnO (refractive index 2.00) in the surrounding medium of the Au NPs increases as compared to water (refractive index 1.34). Again, since the work function is smaller for gold29 (5.1 eV) than for ZnO30 (5.2−5.3 eV), the Fermi energy level of gold is higher than that of ZnO; as a consequence, electron transfer occurs from ZnO to Au during the formation of hybrid ZnO−Au nanostructures

Scheme 1. Schematic Presentation of Miniaturizing the Band Gap in Hybrid ZnO−Au Nanostructures Containing Au NPs of Five Different Sizes

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Figure 2. (a,b) Transmission electron micrographs, (c,d) high-resolution transmission electron micrographs, and (e,f) selected area electron diffraction pattern of ZnO and ZnO−Au, respectively.

Figure 3. (A) Fluorescence spectra of ZnO QDs (16.7 μM) in the absence and presence of Au NPs (0.67 μM) of five different sizes. Inset shows the quenching efficiency of the Au NPs as a function of particle size. (B) Stern−Volmer plots of the quenching of ZnO QDs (16.7 μM) upon addition of five different sizes of Au NPs.

seen that the photoluminescence spectrum (λex ∼ 276 nm) of the ZnO particles at the nanometer size regime exhibits a narrow near-band-edge UV emission with maximum at 350 nm (3.54 eV) and a weak broad green band with maximum at 540 nm (2.3 eV). The ultraviolet emission peak could be ascribed to an excitonic emission arising from the radiative recombination of a hole in the valence band and an electron in the conduction band,38 whereas the broad green emission band, coined as a deep-level emission, may be associated with an electronic transition from a level close to the conduction band edge to a defect associated trap state, such as oxygen vacancies, zinc vacancies, as well as donor−acceptor pairs.38 Panel A shows the room-temperature excitonic emission spectra (λex ∼ 276 nm) of pure ZnO QDs and ZnO−Au nanostructures evolved upon addition of five different sizes of gold nanoparticles. A weak emission along with the main peak of the excitonic band is also observed in the UV region at around 370 nm (∼3.35 eV), which is characteristic of the existence of levels below the conduction band that could be described also as shallow electron traps leading to an emission due to a transition from this level to the valence band or to a level close to the valence

nanostructures (panel d) exhibits the distance between two adjacent planes in wurtzite ZnO as 0.26 nm, corresponding to (002) planes, and that in fcc structured Au as 0.24 nm, resulting from a group of (111) planes.37 The naked eye visualization of the image distinguishes the high contrast difference between ZnO and Au due to the higher electron density of metallic Au and the well-proportioned brightness reveals the presence of ZnO entirely covered on metal particle’s surface with high regularity and uniformity.37 From the selected area electron diffraction pattern of ZnO QDs (panel e), the diffraction rings that are consistent with reflections (100), (002), (101), (102), and (110) corresponds to the hexagonal wurtzite phase of ZnO nanoparticles.37 The corresponding SAED pattern of ZnO−Au heterostructures (panel f) exhibits the appearance of polycrystalline-like diffraction that reveals the diffraction patterns for both ZnO and Au in the assemblies.37 Because the high chemical and photochemical stability of the ZnO QDs deserves the possibility of using the semiconductor particles as efficient photoluminescent labels,38 the spectral changes upon addition of gold nanoparticles could be probed by photoluminescence spectroscopy (Figure 3). It has been D


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Figure 4. (A) Absorption spectral changes of ZnO QDs (16.7 μM) upon successive addition of gold nanoparticles (set B) (4−40 μM). Inset shows the profile showing dependence of 1/(−ΔA) as a function of 1/[AuNPs]. (B) Overlap between the UV emission spectrum of ZnO QDs (16.7 μM) with absorption spectra of gold nanoparticles (40 μM) of five different sizes.

band.23 However, a Stokes’ shift, that is, an energy difference between absorption and emission (= EgQD − EPLQD) of the ZnO quantum dots, is observed because the relaxation process arises before the excitons are generated at the low-energy side of the quantum dots.39 Upon addition of gold colloids, it is seen that the intensity of the UV emission is significantly quenched than that of the pure ZnO QDs, indicating the decreased electron− hole combination.40 It is to be mentioned that the visible emission of ZnO QDs arises but the intensity of the emission is very low. The intensity of the visible emission is further diminished by the noise level upon addition of Au NPs and therefore has not been taken for analysis in the present study. It was noted that gold nanoparticles are themselves nonphotoluminescent. The photoluminescence quenching of ZnO QDs could be attributed to the strong interfacial interaction between ZnO and Au particles.41 Upon excitation, the plasmonic state of gold interacts with the excited state of semiconductor that provides an avenue for the delocalization of photogenerated electrons. Therefore, electron transfer preferably occurs from the semiconductor to the metallic gold in the hybrid nanostructures that seems to quench the ZnO emission. Moreover, it is seen that the extent of quenching decreases with increase in size of the gold particles in the ZnO−Au nanostructures, particularly, quenching efficiency decreases exponentially with the particle diameter as shown in the inset. The Stern−Volmer quenching constant, KSV, accounting for both static and dynamic quenching, is related to the photoluminescence efficiency via the relationship I0 = 1 + KSV [Quencher] where KSV = KS + KD and KS and I K D are the static and dynamic quenching constants, respectively.42 Panel B shows the profiles of I0/I versus gold concentration for a fixed concentration of ZnO QDs (16.7 μM) and corresponding KSV values are determined as 4.434 × 104, 3.155 × 104, 2.398 × 104, 1.947 × 104, and 1.609 × 104 M−1 for gold particle sizes as 8, 10, 13, 16, and 25 nm, respectively. It is noted that Stern−Volmer quenching constant increases by nearly 3-fold when the gold particle size decreases from 25 to 8 nm in the ZnO−Au nanostructures. This indicates that the electron transfer is pronounced for smaller particles as they have high surface area/energy and relatively more electronegative and therefore possess high tendency to accept electrons. Therefore, smaller particles of gold are effective quenchers of photoluminescence of ZnO QDs than the larger

ones. However, these results are in contrast to the observation of plasmonic emission enhancement from quantum dots near metallic nanostructures as has been elucidated by several groups due to coupling with surface plasmon resonance of the metallic particles.43−45 Now, we have tried to elucidate the mechanism of fluorescence quenching between photoluminescent semiconductor and plasmonic metal nanostructures (Figure 4). Both electron and energy transfer processes are perceived to be the main deactivation avenues for excited photoluminescent probes on the metal surface. Panel A shows the absorption spectral changes of ZnO QDs upon successive addition of gold nanoparticles (set B). When an aliquot of Au NPs is added to an aqueous dispersion of ZnO QDs, the absorbance of the semiconductor particles decreases and new band evolves in the range of 500−550 nm (2.48−2.25 eV) corresponding to the surface plasmon absorption of gold nanoparticles. As the concentration of Au NPs increases, the intensity of the excitonic band of ZnO QDs gradually decreases with stepwise red shifting and the surface plasmon absorption gradually develops. This can be ascribed to the fact that electron transfer from the conduction band of ZnO to Au is due to the formation of the metal−semiconductor interface. The gold atoms on the surface possess high residual force and unoccupied orbitals to accept electrons from nucleophiles and this has been satisfied by ZnO providing the electrons to the gold surface.12,25 A plot of ΔA as a function of wavelength, as shown in the inset (top), exhibits the presence of an isosbestic point at approximately 410 nm, which confirms that these absorption changes arise from a complexation equilibrium between the ZnO QDs and Au NPs. The spectral changes can be used to assess the apparent association equilibrium under the experimental conditions. The apparent association constant (Kapp) for the complexation between ZnO QDs and Au NPs could be obtained by analyzing the absorption changes similar to a Benesi−Hildebrand approach.46 The double reciprocal plot of 1/(−ΔA) versus 1/[Au NPs], as shown in the inset (bottom), gives an apparent association constant of the binding of ZnO QDs to the Au NPs (set B). Thus, the values of Kapp have been approximately 14.6178 × 105, 12.0505 × 105, 11.5555 × 105, 10.8647 × 105, and 9.0363 × 105 for gold particle sizes as 8, 10, 13, 16, and 25 nm, respectively. The high values of Kapp suggest strong association between the ZnO QDs E


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region 1500−3500 cm−1 could be assigned to the stretching and bending modes of coordinated water molecules.51 Upon addition of colloidal gold to the ZnO QDs (trace b), the band at 462 cm−1 is shifted to 458 cm−1, corresponding to Zn−O stretching vibration, and the appearance of new band at 437 cm−1 could be attributed to the characteristic stretching modes of Au−O bonds.52 The presence of extra bands at 1395 and 1663 cm−1 could be attributed to the asymmetric and symmetric COO− stretching vibration of citrate, adsorbed onto the gold surface.53 The absorption bands at approximately 869 and 3165 cm−1 could be assigned to the stretching modes of O−H groups that reveals the existence of small amount of water physisorbed and/or chemisorbed by the ZnO−Au nanostructures.54 The changes in the FTIR spectrum upon addition of gold colloids indicates the binding of metallic particles with the ultrasmall zinc oxide particles. Cyclic voltammograms of ZnO QDs (1.67 mM), Au NPs (0.067 mM), and ZnO−Au NSs (molar ratio 25:1) in different potential windows is shown in Figure 6. The observed anodic

and Au NPs of different sets. In addition, the salient feature of physical significance is that the apparent association constant for ZnO−Au depends on the size of the particles and increases as the size of the gold particles decreases, further authenticating the strong binding of the ZnO QDs with the smaller metallic particulates.47 Quenching may also take place when the ZnO QDs are placed in the vicinity of a metal surface through an additional nonradiative decay channel via resonance energy transfer to metal nanostructures as has been seen in many metal− semiconductor nanocomposites, such as Ag−ZnO, Au−ZnO, Al−ZnO, Mg−ZnO, and Pt−ZnO.8 Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is the process involving the nonradiative transfer of excitation energy from an excited donor to a ground state acceptor placed in close proximity, which follows the radiative emission of a lower energy photon.48 Semiconductor ZnO QDs placed in the vicinity of Au NPs can transfer energy to the metallic nanoparticles once it gets excited. The energy transfer is believed to be through the dipole−dipole near-field interaction, where the semiconducting probes act as dipolar donors and the plasmonic gold nanostructures act as dipolar acceptors.49 The probability of this Förster resonance energy transfer is proportional to the spectral overlap between the absorption of the metallic nanostructures and the photoluminescence emission of the ZnO QDs.48 Panel B shows the overlap between the absorption spectrum of gold nanoparticles and the photoluminescence spectrum of ZnO QDs. It is seen that there is no significant overlap between photoluminescence spectrum of ZnO QDs (300−450 nm region) and absorption spectrum of gold NPs (300−800 nm region). As a result, the Au NPs could not absorb the emitted light significantly from the ZnO QDs and therefore impart a negligible contribution to the quenching efficiency of the ZnO QDs. Thus, overall very small quenching is observed perhaps only due to the electron transfer from ZnO QDs to the metallic nanostructures.50 Figure 5 represents the FTIR spectra of ZnO QDs before and after addition of gold nanopartcles. The FTIR spectrum of ZnO (trace a) shows that the main absorption band arising at approximately 462 cm−1 could be attributed to the stretching vibration of Zn−O bonds; the other absorption band at 1263 cm−1 corresponds to C−O stretching frequency of adsorbed acetate counterions.51 The appearance of weak bands in the

Figure 6. Cyclic voltammograms of ZnO QDs (1.67 mM), Au NPs (0.067 mM), and ZnO−Au NCs (molar ratio 25:1) in 0.1 M KCl solution in different potential windows.

peak potential (Epa) of the Au NPs, ZnO QDs, and ZnO−Au NSs is measured to be −0.37, −0.45, and −0.40 V, respectively. From these data, it is noted that the anodic peak potential is in the order of Au NPs < ZnO−Au < ZnO QDs, that is, the anodic/oxidation potential is less in composites as compared to ZnO QDs while high with respect to Au NPs. It is, therefore, revealed that the charge transfer takes place from ZnO QDs to Au NPs, which reduces the potential differences between the two components in ZnO−Au NSs.14 Again, in the reverse scan, the cathodic peak potential (Epc)/reduction potential of ZnO− Au NCs (−0.11 V) that is less with respect to ZnO QDs (−0.10 V) (though the difference is a small quantity) implies that charge transfer takes place from Au to ZnO in the ZnO− Au heterostructures. Moreover, the anodic peak current (Ipa) of

Figure 5. Fourier transform infrared spectra of the as-prepared (a) ZnO QDs and (b) ZnO−Au NCs. F


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The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 24.99 and 19.77 μA of ZnO QDs and ZnO−Au NSs, respectively, represents the charge transfer is very high that exhibits the extent of electron transfer is more from ZnO to Au in the composites. On the other hand, the value of cathodic peak current (Ipc) of −3.67 and −1.87 μA of ZnO QDs and ZnO−Au NSs, respectively, reveals that the charge transfer is much less in ZnO−Au heterostructures than in ZnO QDs. Because the potential difference indicates the direction of flow of charge and the amount of current reflects the quantity of charge transfer, it therefore could be concluded that the charge transfer is a reversible process, though the extent of charge transfer is more in ZnO → Au than in the reverse order Au → ZnO in the ZnO−Au nanocomposites.55 Powder X-ray diffraction patterns of pure ZnO QDs and ZnO−Au NSs are shown in Figure 7. All the diffraction peaks

Figure 8. Enhanced multiphonon Raman scattering spectrum of ZnO QDs and ZnO−Au NCs.

only Raman active, and B1 modes are infrared and Raman inactive (silent modes).56 The frequency of the first-order Raman mode at 577 cm−1 is between the A1 (LO) mode (574 cm−1) and the E1 (LO) mode (591 cm−1), which is a simple sum of both Raman signals and the frequency shifts are multiples of 1-LO zone-center frequency of 577 cm−1. It is seen that there are four major sharp bands of longitudinal optical (LO) phonons where, the n LO is the nth longitudinal optical phonon. Upon addition of gold colloids, all the frequencies of pure ZnO shift from original positions, indicating the attachment of ZnO QDs to the Au NPs.25 Moreover, it is interesting to note that the multiphonon Raman scattering is also largely enhanced in the ZnO−Au NSs in comparison with the pure ZnO QDs. This could be ascribed to the fact that the electrons transferred from ZnO QDs to the Au NPs result enhancement of the electromagnetic field of the gold surface plasmon, which, further, enhances the multiphonon Raman scattering of the semiconductor particles.57 In the present experiment, both ZnO (due to the adsorption of negatively charged acetate counterions) and Au (due to the adsorption of negatively charged citrate counterions) are negatively charged. A plausible mechanism of the binding of ZnO QDs onto the surface of citrate-stabilized gold nanoparticles could be enunciated as follows. In the trisodium citrate solution (pH ∼ 8.0), ZnO QDs become positively charged because the point of zero charge (PZC) of ZnO is 11.0 and therefore, becomes attached onto the negatively charged Au nanoparticles through electrostatic interaction.58 The electrostatic binding of ZnO QDs onto the surface of Au NPs enhances the stability of ZnO−Au NSs and enables the nanocomposites to remain dispersed in the aqueous media for more than six months.58 Photocatalysis, where photons are used for catalytically activating chemical reactions, is one of the significant avenues for harvesting the solar light.59 Typically, photocatalysts generate the charge carriers on excitation, and under optimal conditions the charge carriers are transferred from the catalysts to the reaction medium, which in turn initiates the chemical reaction.59 It has now commonly been experienced that small transition metal clusters exhibit their chemical behavior as photocatalysts. Nevertheless, ZnO has received strong attention as promising photocatalyst due to its innocuousness, abundance, facile synthesis allowing for versatile shapes and sizes, and its easy surface modification.7 But the major drawback for exploiting their utility under visible light

Figure 7. X-ray diffraction pattern of the as-prepared (a) ZnO QDs and (b) ZnO−Au NCs.

of trace a could be indexed as pure hexagonal phase of Zn with a space group of C46v and cell constants a = 3.25 Å, and c = 5.21 Å (JCPDS Card No.: 76-0704), which suggests that the product could be classified as the wurtzite phase of ZnO nanostructures.25 After the deposition ZnO QDs on the surface of gold nanoparticles (trace b), the XRD pattern exhibits broad and relatively weak diffraction peaks that could be assigned to the wurtzite-type ZnO (JCPDS Card No.: 76-0704) and weak metallic gold diffraction lines are also evidenced corresponding to the face-centered cubic Au (JCPDS Card No.: 65-2879); the absence of any other peak in the diffraction pattern indicates the absence of any other crystalline impurities in the ZnO−Au NSs.25 Raman spectroscopy is the most sensitive technique for the detection of optical phonon modes and therefore, to characterize related vibrational properties.56 In the present experiment, the samples were excited by the 488 nm (2.55 eV) line of a Ar+ laser; multiphonon scattering,56 therefore, is observed in the Raman spectra of pure ZnO QDs and ZnO−Au NSs as shown in Figure 8. The crystalline structure of ZnO could be assigned to the C46v symmetry group possessing two formula units per primitive cell with all the atoms occupying the C3v sites, which assumes eight sets of zone center optical phonons: two A1, two E1, two E2, and two B1 modes. Among these, A1 and E1 modes are polar and split into transverse (A1T and E1T) and longitudinal (A1L and E1L) phonons, all being Raman and infrared active; E2 modes are nonpolar consisting of two modes of low- and high-frequency (E2L and E2H) phonons and are G


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Figure 9. (A) Absorption spectral changes during the degradation of Evans blue (20 μM) in the presence of ZnO−Au NCs (containing gold nanoparticles from set B) upon visible light irradiation. (B) Profile showing the plot of ln(A0/A) as a function of time for photocatalytic degradation of Evans blue in the presence of ZnO QDs and ZnO−Au NCs containing gold nanoparticles of five different sizes.

control experiment, an aqueous solution of EB (3.0 mL, 20 μM) was exposed to the same tungsten lamp under identical experimental conditions. It was observed that in the absence of the catalysts the photochemical decomposition of the dye is not appreciable in the experimental time scale. In addition, it was noted that the decomposition of the dye is also very slow in the presence of pure ZnO QDs; however, the degradation becomes faster in the presence of hybrid ZnO−Au nanostructures. These changes in the absorption spectral features exhibit that with increase in irradiation time Evans blue undergoes photocatalytic degradation and indicates the formation of small fragmented organic products.61 The decrease in intensity of the absorption band of Evans blue at 608 nm has been used to access the photocatalytic activity of the nanostructures for the degradation of the dye. A profile showing the plot of ln(A0/A), where A0 is the absorbance at t = 0 and A the absorbance at time t = t, as a function of time as presented in panel B shows that the reaction follows first order kinetics and the corresponding catalytic rate constants (Kcat) have been calculated as 0.7 × 10−3, 5.96 × 10−3, 5.53 × 10−3, 5.15 × 10−3, 4.34 × 10−3, and 3.76 × 10−3 min−1 in the presence of pure ZnO and five different sets of ZnO−Au heterostructures containing Au NPs of sizes 8, 10, 13, 16, and 25 nm, respectively. Thus, semiconductor−plasmonic metal hybrids exhibit better photocatalytic activity in comparison with pure semiconductor for the degradation of Evans blue under visible light irradiation while all other parameters remain constants. It is, therefore, apparent that the deposition of ZnO QDs onto the surfaces of Au NPs significantly alters the interfacial charge transfer process and enormously affects the photocatalytic properties.18 Moreover, it is noted that as the size of the gold particles in the ZnO−Au NSs decreases, the photocatalytic activity increases as has been by Pradhan group employing Au−SnS heterostructures.62 The improved photocatalytic activities of the hybrid ZnO− Au NSs in comparison with pure ZnO QDs could be explained by three reasons. First, ZnO QDs are not spontaneously dispersible in water (could be dispersed by ultracentrifugation at the experimental concentration), whereas the ZnO−Au NSs are easily dispersible in aqueous medium.63,64 Second, there is less electron density on the conduction band and homogeneous nature of electron cloud in ZnO QDs; however, these difficulties could be overcome in ZnO−Au NSs.55 The gold part in the ZnO−Au NSs generates a heterogeneous environment through the formation of resonant surface plasmons of the free electrons in response to a photon flux, localizing

irradiation is that the optical absorption of these materials lies in the UV range of the solar spectrum due to the wide band gaps of more than 3.0 eV so that only a small part of the incident energy can be converted. However, this problem can be resolved significantly by the conjugation of semiconductor photocatalysts with tailored plasmonic nanostructures; the ability to donate or accept charge points to the utilization of such hybrid semiconductor−metal nanostructures in photocatalytic applications. Now, the catalytic activities of the ZnO−Au nanostructures consisting of gold nanoparticles of variable sizes have been probed in photochemical decomposition of Evans blue under visible light illuminations as the model reaction. Evans blue [tetrasodium (6E,6′E)-6,6-{(3,3′-dimethylbiphenyl-4,4′-diyl)di(1E)hydrazin-2-yl-1-ylidene}bis(4-amino-5-oxo-5,6 dihydronaphthalene-1,3-disulfonate)], also known as “Direct Blue 53”, is a diazo dye and can be utilized in physiology for analyzing the body water content in blood plasma.60 Furthermore, they are used for coloring of rayon, paper, leather and to a lesser extent nylon; however, discharge of such colorants to surface water cause harmful environmental effects.60 The photocatalytic degradation of Evans blue has been chosen as the model reaction as its degradation can, quantitatively, be measured via its absorption spectroscopy. Moreover, Evans blue has been selected because of its considerable stability against spontaneous photobleaching in the absence of a photocatalyst.60 In a typical reaction, 33 μg of the as-synthesized catalysts was mixed with 3.0 mL of 20 μM aqueous solution of the dye molecules and the dispersion was stirred in the dark for 2 h to attain the adsorption−desorption equilibrium between the catalyst particles and dye molecules. Then, the solution was irradiated with the tungsten lamp and the progress of the reaction was monitored by following the absorption spectral changes of the dye molecules. The blank of the instrument was performed before addition of Evans blue but in the presence of hybrid ZnO−Au nanostructures to eliminate the contribution of the plasmon resonance peak of Au. The photochemical degradation of the dye in the presence of different nanostructures is presented in Figure 9. Panel A shows the degradation of Evans blue in the presence of ZnO− Au NSs (containing Au NPs from set B). Aqueous solution of the dye molecules exhibits an intense absorbance band centered at approximately 608 nm corresponding to n → π* transitions and molar extinction coefficient, ε ∼ 7.8 × 104 M−1 cm−1 corresponding to the monomeric form of the dye.60 In a H


Article


Scheme 2. Schematic Presentation of the Photocatalytic Degradation of Evans Blue at the ZnO−Au Nanocomposites Surfaces

mechanism of tuning the band gap can be explained by the nature and extent of interaction between the ZnO QDs and Au NPs of different sizes in the composites. With decreasing the size of the gold nanoparticles, the extent of electrostatic interaction with the ZnO particles increases due to two reasons. First, with decreasing size of the metallic nanoparticles the surface-to-volume ratio increases and hence a large number of ZnO QDs could be attached onto the gold nanoparticle surfaces. Second, the total residual force (surface energy) increases with decreasing the size (as the number of particles increases for a particular gold concentration) of the gold nanoparticles and as a result ZnO QDs become attached on the gold nanoparticles surface more tightly in the ZnO−Au heterostructure formation. Therefore, band gap in the ZnO− Au composites decreases with decreasing the size of the gold nanoparticles and in consequence catalytic activity increases. A lexicon of the apparent association constants, Stern−Volmer quenching constants, band gap, and catalytic rate constants for five different sizes of gold nanoparticles in the ZnO−Au nanostructures are enunciated in Table 1. A profile showing the

electromagnetic energy close to their surfaces. Because ZnO QDs are capable of transferring electrons to gold nanoparticles, there is the formation of a built-in electromagnetic field at the interface of ZnO−Au heterostructures. It already is established that flow of electrons from the ZnO defect level into the Au Fermi level is allowed, which increases the electron density within the Au.65 The surface plasmon resonance of Au NPs generates hot electrons in the higher energy states. These electrons are so active that they can escape from the surface of Au NPs to the conduction band of ZnO.66,67 These activated electrons emit energy through radiative/nonradiative process from the conduction band to the valence band. During this process, the activated electron/emitted energy enhances the photocatalytic degradation of the organic dye molecules. In other words, electrons in the defect levels are pumped via SPR of Au NPs to the conduction band of ZnO in femtosecond scale with irradiation of photon energy (light) in the visible region. Therefore, the increased electron density in the conduction band of the ZnO results enhanced photocatalytic activity.68 Third, the absorption of pure ZnO QDs falls in the UV region; because visible light was incident for the catalysis during the experiments, therefore, practically no excitation takes place in the ZnO QDs that results to exhibit poor catalytic activity. But in the ZnO−Au NSs, due to the presence of nanostructured gold there is SPR pumping of electrons from Fermi energy level to the excited SPR level that can be transferred to the conduction band of ZnO.66,67 As a result, there is an increase in excitation of electrons to the conduction band in the ZnO part of the ZnO−Au NSs; the enhancement of electron density in the conduction band, further, increases the photocatalytic activity.3 Therefore, a plausible mechanism of the photocatalysis by ZnO−Au NSs for the degradation of Evans blue under visible light irradiation could be enunciated as shown in Scheme 2. When bulk materials are scaled down to the nanoscale, novel properties emerge, such as size-dependent band gaps due to quantum confinement, enhanced catalytic properties due to the large surface area and rich surface structure, and plasmonic effects due to localized collective electron oscillation.69 However, when these NPs are interacting with the nearby environment, as is inevitable in device applications, their intrinsic properties diverges from that of free particles and depends critically on the chemical composition and electronic properties of the adjacent materials.70 In the present experiment, it is seen that the band gap of ZnO QDs could be varied upon adsorption onto the size-specific gold nanoparticles. The

Table 1. Characteristic Physical Parameters as a Function of Gold Particle Size in ZnO−Au Nanostructures diameter of gold particles, DAu (nm) 8 10 13 16 25

apparent association constant, Kapp (M−1) 14.6178 12.0505 11.5555 10.8647 9.0363

× × × × ×

105 105 105 105 105

Stern−Volmer quenching constant, KSV (M−1) 4.434 3.155 2.398 1.947 1.609

× × × × ×

104 104 104 104 104

band gap, Eg (eV)

catalytic rate constant, Kcat (min−1)

3.21 3.23 3.27 3.28 3.30

5.96 5.53 5.15 4.34 3.76

× × × × ×

10−3 10−3 10−3 10−3 10−3

correlation between the values of Kapp, Ksv, and Kcat with the band gap as a function of particle diameter of gold in ZnO−Au NSs is depicted in Figure 10. It is seen that the band gap increases exponentially while the apparent association constants, Stern−Volmer quenching constants and catalytic rate constants decreases exponentially with increase in diameter of the gold particles in ZnO−Au NCs. It is to be noted that apparent association constants and Stern−Volmer quenching constants measure the binding affinity of the individual components in maneuvering the heterostructures while the decrease in band gap or catalytic rate constants are the manifestations of the electron transfer at the semiconductor− metal interface. It is evident that there is a significant change in I



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Article

ASSOCIATED CONTENT

S Supporting Information *

The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b03551. Experimental details for the synthesis of ZnO QDs and size-selective gold nanoparticles.(PDF)

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AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +91-3842-270848. Notes

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We gratefully acknowledge financial support from DBT, New Delhi (Project No. BT/277/NE/TBP/2012). We are thankful to Dr. Achintya Singha, Bose Institute, Kolkata for providing facilities for Raman measurements.

Figure 10. Profile showing the correlation between the apparent association constants, Stern−Volmer quenching constants, and catalytic rate constants with the band gap as a function of particle diameter of gold in ZnO−Au nanohybrids.

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all the physical properties with the gold particle diameter of approximately 10 nm; therefore, Au NPs of diameter less than 10 nm is recommended for engineering the band gap of the hybrid ZnO−Au assemblies. Moreover, highly reproducible changes in the band gap, apparent association constants, Stern−Volmer quenching constants, and catalytic rate constants in similar fashion indicate the specificity of interaction of the metallic and semiconductor components at the nanoscale. Therefore, it is anticipated that smaller gold nanoparticles (≤10 nm) prepared by other synthetic methodologies could impart a marked reduction in the band gap of ZnO QDs provided that the metallic particles should possess the chemical binding affinity with the ultrasmall semiconductor particles.

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4. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, the binding of ZnO QDs on the surface of sizespecific gold nanoparticles that has been investigated in detail has resolved that the interfacial charge transfer process alters the physicochemical properties of the hetero-nanostructures. The present article demonstrates that the chemical synthesis of water-soluble hybrid ZnO−Au nanostructures that are soluble in aqueous media by simple deposition of ZnO QDs on the surface of gold nanoparticles paves an effective and alternative strategy in comparison with the in situ formation of functional semiconductor−metal assemblies. Although pure ZnO QDs exhibit photocatalytic activity toward the degradation of Evans blue, the major disadvantages are that the pure ZnO nanostructures could not absorb an indispensable amount of visible light; however, this issue can be solved significantly by the conjugation of semiconductor photocatalysts with tailored plasmonic nanostructures. Moreover, the band gap of the hybrid semiconductor−plasmonic metal assemblies could be miniaturized by changing the size of the gold nanoparticles and the modification of the band gap has been probed in the photocatalytic decomposition of Evans’ blue under visible light irradiation. Lastly, the simple and facile approach of the present strategy builds a good platform toward fabricating other semiconductor−metal assemblies over a wide range of material combinations with morphological anisotropy and functional diversities. J


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