Commentary pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc
Mapping the Teaching of History of Chemistry in Europe Ignacio Suay-Matallana*,† CIUHCT-Centro Interuniversitário de História das Ciências e da Tecnologia, UNL Caparica 2829-516, Portugal
José Ramón Bertomeu Sánchez† Institut d’Història de la Medicina i de la Ciència “López Piñero”, University of Valencia, Valencia 46003, Spain ABSTRACT: Recent developments in the field of history of chemistry have introduced new topics, challenges, and connections to a broad range of scientific, political, cultural, economic, and environmental issues. New audiences for the history of chemistry have emerged along with new topics, protagonists, spaces, and historical narratives. This paper summarizes the main results of a recent survey to map the current situation of the teaching of history of chemistry in Europe. We review how and where history of chemistry is taught in Europe, considering not only graduate students in science programs, but also other audiences such as science teachers, and the general public. This paper also provides updated information on journals, museums, and teaching resources across Europe. Finally, it considers how recent educational reforms have affected the teaching of history of chemistry, while evaluating the main risks and challenges for the discipline. KEYWORDS: Continuing Education, History/Philosophy, Constructivism, Learning Theories
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HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION During the past decades, the history of chemistry has become a discipline rooted in multiple academic settings, initiating a period of consolidation and renovation. New topics (such as environmental issues, popular science, gender studies, politics of expertise, visual and material cultures, science in movement, etc.), actors (scientists, but also technicians, workers, stakeholders, the general public, etc.), problems (political controversies, economic history, subaltern studies, etc.), and spaces (not only laboratories but also factories, hospitals, classrooms or the public sphere) have gained momentum, so bridges with other disciplines, such as science and technology studies, science education, geography, environmental history, etc., have been established. A generation of young historians have joined the field, multiplying the methods, sources, and historical narratives. As a result, the purposes and uses of the history of chemistry have also been enlarged and diversified. Oldfashioned narratives (such as hagiographies, Whig history, narratives of scientific progress, focus on discovery, etc.) have remained important in certain settings, while the new trends have mostly flourished inside the specialized community of historians of science. The field of science education has also expanded during the last third of the 20th century through new journals, publications, meetings, educational experiences, and academic societies. Some of these developments have affected the longstanding connections between history of science and science education. The use of history in science classrooms is nowadays very diverse and includes promoting students’ interest in scientific knowledge, showing the humanistic side of science, clarifying scientific concepts with a historical perspective, promoting conceptual changes, presenting science in action, offering clues about the nature of science, improving the training of prospective science teachers, or pointing out the relationships between science, technology, society, and environ© XXXX American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.
ment. Historical perspective might also promote reflection on the characteristics of science education.1 The settings of history of chemistry have also changed. In 2004, John T. Stock published a survey mapping the teaching of history of chemistry in the university system of the United States.2 Despite the absence of specific history of chemistry courses in many U.S institutions, his work showed a renewed interest for history of chemistry, and its pedagogic utility to show the impact of chemistry in the intellectual, cultural, and economic development of modern societies. The relationship between history, chemistry, and society resulted in the integration of history of chemistry contents within the general history of science courses offered by philosophy or history departments.3 One example of that interest is the work done by the Chemical Heritage Foundation, an institution devoted to the study of the connections between chemistry, history, and society, which includes a research center, a library, a museum, and an impressive fine arts collection.4 Another project to state the situation of history of chemistry has been done by Peter Ramberg, who created an online catalogue of different course syllabi in history of chemistry from eight U.S. institutions and two European universities.5 A similar effort (but with more emphasis on philosophy of chemistry) was developed by the journal Hyle. Its report describes philosophy of chemistry courses taught in 10 universities of Europe, America, and Australia.6 All the previous initiatives show a renewed interest in history of science by chemists, other scientists, and the general public, as well as the need to provide online resources, teaching materials, and didactic strategies to teachers dealing with historical issues in their classrooms.7 Received: May 31, 2016 Revised: November 2, 2016
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seminars and summer schools are organized with topics related to history of science and history of chemistry. Some examples are the schools organized in Ischia (Italy) [on history of the Life Sciences], Lille (France) [on history of technology and science education], or Mahon (Spain) [on experts and environmental history]. Many other courses are organized by amateur historians and retired chemists, and in most cases, their content substantially differs from academic history from the point of view of narrative, frame, focus, sources, actors, and so on.
In the European context, one of the authors of this paper (J.R.B.S.) conducted a survey to examine the prevalence and modality of the teaching of history of chemistry in European universities between 2005 and 2007. The survey mapped three areas of development in universities: traditional courses for chemists (generally placed at the end of the university years), courses addressed to prospective teachers, and master and doctoral programs in general history of science or science studies.8 Since then, the creation of the European Higher Education Area (Bologna process) has deeply impacted the European university system. It has affected, among other things, the duration of many degrees, the distribution and sequencing of topics, and the practices of teaching and learning humanistic subjects. The main objective of the new survey, written by the other author (I.S-M.) of this paper, has been to analyze the current situation of the teaching of history of chemistry in Europe, updating the previous reports and providing updated resources for lecturers and instructors. The survey was done between July of 2015 and January of 2016, and it includes 12 questions related to pedagogic materials and publications employed, the regional and national museums, the institutions and associations devoted to the discipline in their area, the main popularization activities, and the most relevant achievements and challenges related to the discipline in each country, among others. The survey gathers information on 19 European countries, including most of the EU, as well as Russia, Serbia, and Norway. More than 50 professors, researchers, and other scholars have kindly participated in the survey, providing very valuable information. Its main results are summarized in the following sections; all of the details and complete data are available online.9
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SOCIETIES, CONFERENCES, AND MUSEUMS Museums, as well as chemistry societies and general science associations, prepare a wide variety of activities related to history of chemistry, such as public lectures, guided visits to historical landmarks (opened to both students and tourists), or science festivals (e.g., the European Researcher’s Night). The material culture of chemistry, notably, the scientific instruments collections, can be an excellent tool to explore the value of scientific spaces, the evolution of scientific practices, or the relationship between practical knowledge, textbooks, and teaching. Many secondary schools across Europe still maintain their historic collections of physics and chemistry, although in many cases neither catalogues nor formal exhibitions have been prepared. In most of the cases, history of chemistry collections are integrated in history of science museums. Some exceptions are the Liebig museum in Giessen, the museum of chemistry of the University of Genoa, and the magnificently restored 18th and 19th century amphitheaters and laboratories of the universities of Coimbra and Lisbon.10 There are very few independent associations and societies focused only on history of chemistry. The most notable exception is the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry (SHAC), which is based in the U.K., with members distributed worldwide. In addition to publishing the indexed journal Ambix, it organizes grant competitions (such as the SHAC Award Scheme) and conferences (like the SHAC Graduate Network), among many other activities. Generally, history of chemistry groups are embedded in larger associations and committees of history of science or in their national chemistry societies. Another relevant initiative is the Working Party on History of Chemistry of the European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences, which represents different national divisions as well as other history of chemistry groups, and promotes different activities such as the International Conferences for the History of Chemistry every two years.11
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WHAT, WHO, AND TO WHOM? History of chemistry courses are intended for a wide variety of students, from traditional bachelor and master students of science, to postgraduate students on history of science to prospective and practising teachers of secondary school and, in less formalized settings, senior citizens and the general public. According to the survey, most of the countries offer optional history of chemistry courses for chemistry and pharmacy bachelor students. However, history of chemistry is compulsory in a few cases, such as the Czech Republic (for B.Sc. students), Italy (for B.A. students), Serbia (for prospective chemistry teachers), and Russia (for B.Sc. and M.Sc. students, and prospective science teachers). A notable case, because of its specificity, is the history of alchemy course for M.A. students taught at the University of Amsterdam. The report also confirms a growing interest in history of chemistry by postgraduate students of different disciplines. In most cases, history of chemistry content is integrated into general history of science courses and, more commonly, in master and doctoral programs on history of science. Recently, history of chemistry content is being taught in courses for prospective science teachers and refresher courses for practicing secondary school teachers (e.g., in Athens, Coimbra, Moscow, Thessalonica, Trondheim, Valencia, and Vienna). In relation to secondary school students, the preparation of final degree projects is becoming a popular option in different countries, and many students decide to prepare a project related to history of chemistry. Courses for elderly students are also emerging and expanding (for instance, in universities such as Uppsala, where an evening course for senior citizens has been organized). Finally, in the growing market of informal education, open
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TEACHING RESOURCES Teachers and lecturers have to deal with two main problems related to history of chemistry materials. First, most of them have to adapt history of chemistry contents to be included in general courses of history of science. Second, there is a lack of new books with national case studies to fit their contexts and their local interests. According to the survey, the History of Chemistry by William H. Brock, with several editions and translations, is widely employed in different universities. Other textbooks employed are A History of Chemistry by Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent and Isabelle Stengers, and Transforming Matter by Trevor Levere.12 The number of journals primarily focused on history of chemistry is very limited. History of chemistry works usually appear in professional history of science journals (commonly B
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00401 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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working jointly with amateur writers (retired chemists, journalists or academic authorities) to organize commemorative events (celebrating anniversaries of scientists, institutions, or discoveries), which still play a major role in the publication of books or the funding of research projects in history of chemistry. Another historiographical tension implies the integration of history of chemistry within the general history of science, while, at the same time, history of chemistry scholars are making an effort for connecting their work with other disciplines, such as environmental history, economic history, or medical history. In spite of its weak institutionalization, the creation and strengthening of international networks, with new research projects, publications, and collaborative works, has brought a breath of fresh air to the discipline during the past several years. The number of conferences and meetings is large, contributing to the integration of scholars into the discipline. At the same time, new trends (such as the revival of scientific biographies, new interest in materials or the analysis of visual cultures) and connections with other disciplines have enlarged the intended audience, from chemists and students of chemistry to a broad range of scholars in different humanistic fields and the general public. New resources are needed in order to address the interests of these audiences. The survey also confirms that informal spaces of learning (including new information and communication technologies) are becoming more and more important. A wide variety of outreach activities related to history of chemistry (from public lectures, and summer schools to science festivals performances) are increasingly offered in many European countries. New audiences are also concerned with the protection of the chemical heritage. The training of experts able to deal with such content, as well as the preparation of educative materials, is also an excellent opportunity for growth in history of chemistry. Finally, the difficulties of maintaining a large audience of university students, especially bachelor students, are balanced by the interest shown by other members of the public such as prospective teachers, professional chemists, senior citizens, and the general public, which is not just a challenge but also an opportunity for the discipline.
submitted by historians of chemistry), while science professors dealing with historical issues prefer to publish in specialized journals on science education. The journal Ambix is the major international publication on history of chemistry and alchemy.13 Other European countries with journals on history of chemistry are the Czech Republic (Chemické Listy), Denmark (Dansk Selskab for Historisk Kemi), Germany (Mitteilungen, GDCh), Italy (Atti dei Gruppo Nazionale di Fondamenti e Storia della Chimica), and the U.K. (Royal Society of Chemistry Historical Group Newsletter). A wide variety of information circulates through different national and local distribution lists, usually connected to departments or societies. The distribution list CHEM-HIST, created in 1997 at Regensburg, is the most widely employed list in Europe for history of chemistry. The survey also asked about the more extended research lines across Europe. There is a lot of interest in 19th and 20th century issues, but scholars of some countries are also very interested in alchemy. In the U.K. there are 15 SHAC students; 9 are devoted to recent history of chemistry while 6 are working on history of alchemy topics. The survey also indicates that scientific biographies are a topic receiving increased attention, with new biographic dictionaries and databases. Another extended topic is related to the study of the multitude of sites, spaces, and places where chemistry has been practiced. Finally, topics such as quantum chemistry, environmental history, and the relationships between chemistry, war, and exile are studied in more than one country.
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CONCLUSIONS The Bologna process is one of the most important challenges to the continued development and growth of history of chemistry in Europe. It has affected both the amount of hours and the options to learn history of chemistry in the European universities. The final results are still unknown, but the survey offers some hints about current trends, and future scenarios. Many other ongoing changes might also involve far-reaching consequences. For instance, as remarked in some answers to the survey, the rise of academic fees due to the educational reform might not only introduce greater social inequalities, but also encourage students to choose more applied subjects instead of courses with humanistic contents aimed to foster critical thinking. Moreover, political decisions to improve “academic productivity” (in most cases naturalized with an econometric jargon, and controversial scientific indicators) are affecting humanities as a whole, and history of science in particular. The decline of public investment, scarcely balanced by the raise of private funds, is also affecting the European academic system. The teaching of history of chemistry is being damaged by the retirement of leading scholars from the previous generation, who are not always replaced by younger researchers. In contrast to the U.S., Europe does not have specific institutions devoted to history of chemistry. Only few (and in most cases optional) courses on this discipline are offered in some European universities. In spite of these difficulties, the current state of affairs is by no means a cause for pessimism: many green shoots are visible, and the situation varies greatly among the different European countries. While some authors call for revised big narratives, according to current historiographical trends, in other cases (particularly in poorly studied contexts) the focus is on local studies, sometimes with the aim of attracting the interest of their local audiences. In many cases, professional historians are
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail:
[email protected]. ORCID
Ignacio Suay-Matallana: 0000-0003-0443-9427 Author Contributions †
I.S-M. and J.R.B.S. contributed equally to this work.
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are extremely grateful to all the contributors to the survey, as well as to Brigitte van Tiggelen for her help with this EuCheMS project. This paper has been possible thanks to the projects “Ciencia, medicina y ley en España (1845-1940)” (HAR2012-36204-C02-01/HIST) funded by the Spanish government, and “Experts, Institutions and Globalization (EIG)” (UID/HIS/00286/2013) funded by the Portuguese government. C
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REFERENCES
(1) Mansoor, D. Chemistry Education and Contributions from History and Philosophy of Science; Springer: Dordrecht, 2016. Matthews, M. R. International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching; Springer Verlag: Amsterdam, 2014. (2) Stock, J. T. The Teaching of the History of Chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 2004, 81 (6), 793−794. (3) Benfey, T. Teaching Chemistry embedded in history: reflections on C.K. Ingold’s influence as historian and educator. Bull. Hist. Chem. 1996, 19, 19−24. (4) Chemical Heritage Foundation. http://www.chemheritage.org/ (accessed September 2016). (5) Ramberg, P. J. History of Chemistry Course Syllabi. http:// ramberg.sites.truman.edu/syllabi/ (accessed September 2016). (6) HYLE-University Courses in Philosophy of Chemistry. http://www. hyle.org/service/courses.htm (accessed September 2016). (7) Olsson, K. A.; Balgopal, M. M.; Levinger, N. E. How Did We Get Here? Teaching Chemistry with a Historical Perspective. J. Chem. Educ. 2015, 92, 1773−1776. (8) Other reports and Publications: Teaching History of Chemistry in Europe: Teaching History of Chemistry in Europe 2007; Bertomeu Sánchez, J. R., Ed. http://www.euchems.eu/divisions/history-ofchemistry-2/references/ (accessed December 2016). (9) The complete survey is available: Other reports and Publications: Teaching History of Chemistry in Europe: EuCheMs Survey: History of Science in Europe 2015; Suay-Matallana, I., Ed. http://www.euchems. eu/divisions/history-of-chemistry-2/references/ (accessed December 2016). (10) A more detailed list of chemistry, and science collections and museums can be found: Material Culture of Science: Museums and Collections in the Periphery. http://step2.hicido.uv.es/?q=node/43 (accessed December 2016). (11) The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry was established in 1935. The EuCheMS Working Party on History of Chemistry was created in 1977. For more information about the other groups, please check the complete survey. (12) Brock, W. H. The Fontana History of Chemistry; Fontana Press: London, 1992. A short version has recently been published: Brock, W. H. The History of Chemistry. A Very Short Introduction; Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2016. Bensaude-Vincent, B.; Stengers, I. Histoire de la Chimie; La Decouverte: Paris, 1993. Levere, T. H. Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball; John Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, 2001. Recent textbooks on history of alchemy are: Principe, L. The Secrets of Alchemy; University Of Chicago Press: Chicago, 2012. Joly, B. Histoire de l’Alchimie; Vuibert-Adapt: Paris, 2013. (13) Other international journals are the Bulletin for the History of Chemistry (edited by the American Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry) and Kagakushi Kenkyu (Journal of the Japanese Society for the History of Chemistry).
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