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MARINE PHAGES AS TRACERS: EFFECTS OF SIZE, MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL SURFACE PROPERTIES ON TRANSPORT IN A POROUS MEDIUM Nawras Ghanem, Bärbel Kiesel, Rene Kallies, Hauke Harms, Antonis Chatzinotas, and Lukas Y. Wick Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04236 • Publication Date (Web): 07 Oct 2016 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on October 18, 2016
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MARINE PHAGES AS TRACERS: EFFECTS OF SIZE, MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL
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SURFACE PROPERTIES ON TRANSPORT IN A POROUS MEDIUM
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Nawras Ghanem1, Bärbel Kiesel1, René Kallies1, Hauke Harms1,2, Antonis Chatzinotas1,2 and Lukas Y. Wick1*
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Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department of Environmental Microbiology, Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany.
German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Deutscher Platz 5e, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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Running title: Marine phages as microbial tracers
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Intended for: Environmental Science and Technology
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*
Corresponding author: Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ. Department of Environmental Microbiology; Permoserstrasse 15; 04318 Leipzig, Germany. phone: +49 341 235 1316, fax: +49 341 235 45 1316, e-mail:
[email protected].
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Abstract
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Although several studies examined the transport of viruses in the terrestrial systems only few studies
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exist on marine phages (i.e. non-terrestrial viruses infecting marine host bacteria) as sensitively
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detectable microbial tracers for subsurface colloid transport and water flow. Here, we systematically
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quantified and compared for the first time the effects of size, morphology and physico-chemical
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surface properties of six marine phages and two coliphages (MS2, T4) during transport in sand-filled
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percolated columns. Phage-sand interactions were described by colloidal filtration theory and the
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extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek approach (XDLVO), respectively. The phages
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belonged to different families and comprised four phages never used in transport studies (i.e. PSA-
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HM1, PSA-HP1, PSA-HS2 and H3/49). Phage transport was influenced by size, morphology and
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hydrophobicity in an approximate order of size > hydrophobicity ≥ morphology. Two phages PSA-
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HP1, PSA-HS2 (Podoviridae and Siphoviridae) exhibited similar mass recovery as commonly used
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coliphage MS2 and were sevenfold better transported than known marine phage vB_PSPS-H40/1.
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Differing properties of the marine phages may be used to trace transport of indigenous viruses,
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natural colloids or anthropogenic nanomaterials and, hence, contribute to better risk analysis. Our
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results underpin the potential role of marine phages as microbial tracer for transport of colloidal
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particles and water flow.
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One sentence brief. Differences in the properties of marine phages influence their transport in
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porous media and underpin their potential as microbial tracers for reactive transport of colloidal
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particles and water flow.
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KEYWORDS: Marine phage, transport, colloid, bacteria, microbial tracer, XDLVO.
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INTRODUCTION
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Bacteriophages (or short: phages) are viruses that infect bacteria. In contrast to human- and animal
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health-related microorganisms, viruses infecting environmental microbes in particular in terrestrial
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system are less studied.1,2,3 Next to their impact on their hosts and on manifold ecosystem
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functions,4,5,6 their suitability as markers for water transport in the subsurface has been considered.7,8
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In 1980 Keswick and Gerba suggested to use bacteriophages as tracers because of similar movement
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and survival as animal viruses.9 Many phages (especially coli-phages such as MS2) have been tested
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since then either as potential surrogates for viral pathogens10,11 or as a tool to trace the flow of water
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in hydrology.12,13 An awkwardness of this usage was their differing adsorption behavior from the
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human adenoviruses (hAdVs)14 or the Norwalk virus15 and the isolation of both, coli-phages and
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their hosts from groundwater.9,16 Moreover, strains of E. coli are listed as pathogenic bacteria of
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concern.17 Despite a large number of studies examining the transport of phages in the terrestrial
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subsurface, only very few studies evaluated marine phages, most often phage H40/1,18,19,20,21 as
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biological tracers.22 Marine phages are highly suitable for transport studies because they are virtually
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absent in the terrestrial ecosystem23 and non-pathogenic. Additionally they allow for highly sensitive
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detection22 due to the possibility to apply as many as 1015 phages (~1 g) in tracer experiments and to
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detect as little as one or two phages per mL of recovered water,22 via its specific interaction with the
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host bacterium.
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First studies by Gerba and Goyal proposed that viruses can be grouped by their adhesion behavior as
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mimic for their ability to interact with soil.10 Follow-up studies however rather focused on the effect
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of environmental rather than viral factors on virus transport in soil (e.g. heterogeneity of the soil24,25;
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soil textures and conditions26,27,28,29 or chemical factors).30,31,32,33,34,35 Data on the effect of virus
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properties on their transport, however, are still scarce.36 A few studies aimed at predicting transport
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in relation to physical viral properties such as the isoelectric point,37 a combination of isoelectric
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point and size,38 or the different surface charge, polarity and topography of viral protein structures.39
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Yet no such study on marine phages is known. In the frame of the Collaborative Research Centre
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AquaDiva (http://www.aquadiva.uni-jena.de/) our study aimed at selecting and characterizing
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different marine phages and at studying their transport in porous media.40 Although inherently not
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being as inert and conservative as ideal chemical tracers may be, we here consider marine phages as
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sensitively detectable microbial tracers17 for colloidal transport and advective water flow. We
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hypothesized that size, morphology and physico-chemical surface properties control their transport
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and, hence, their appropriateness as surrogates for transport of colloidal particles. For this purpose,
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we systematically investigated the transport of six marine phages in addition with two commonly
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applied coli-phages in transport studies (T4 and MS2) using sand-filled laboratory columns. The
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selected phages belonged to four different virus families (Myoviridae, Siphoviridae, Podoviridae and
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Leviviridae) and thus differed in their size, morphology and physicochemical properties. The set of
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phages included four marine phages that never had been examined for their suitability as tracers
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(PSA-HM1, PSA-HP1, PSA-HS2 and H3/49). The phages’ physico-chemical properties, were
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assessed by dynamic light scattering and water contact angle analysis, size and morphology
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information were obtained from literature data, while phage transport and phage-sand interactions
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were described by colloidal filtration theory and the extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek
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approach (XDLVO), respectively.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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Material and Methods
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Phages and phage assay: Six lytic marine phages were selected (Table 1) and obtained together
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with their host strains from different sources: Phages PSA-HP1, PSA-HS2 and PSA-HM1 were
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kindly provided by Dr. B. M. Duhaime (University of Michigan, USA); phage H3/49 by Dr. E.
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Roine (University of Helsinki, Finland); phage VB_PSPS-H40/1 and VB_PSPS-H6/1 by Dr. J. Zopfi
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(University of Basel, Switzerland). In addition to marine phages two well-characterized, non-marine
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phages (phage T4 and MS2) were used as controls.41,42 Phages T4 and MS2 and their host E. coli
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were purchased from Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen GmbH (DSMZ,
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Germany). Except for Schewanella baltica that grew in 100% nutrient broth at 10°C, all marine
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bacterial strains were grown at room temperature using dilute (50%) 2216E medium.43Phage titration
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was performed using a modified spotting plaque assay technique. Deviating from Adams44 the top
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layer of the counting agar plates contained solely a bacterial suspension, to which phage lysates (5
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µL) were spotted in triplicate. No significant differences to results obtained with the technique by
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Adams were found in the range of 7 – 22 (±3) plaque forming units (PFU) 5 µL-1. All plates
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containing the phage host pairs were incubated overnight at room temperature (except 10°C for
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H3/49 and 37°C for phages MS2 and T4).
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Phage propagation and purification: Phages were propagated on their hosts using the double agar-
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layer technique and high phage concentrations to reach completely lysis plates. Phage particles were
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gathered after confluent lysis of bacteria by adding 5 mL of SM buffer (100 mM NaCl, 8 mM
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MgSO4 x 7H2O, 50 mM Tris-HCl; pH = 7) and a few drops of chloroform with mild shaking for 2 h
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at room temperature. The supernatant was recovered and cell debris was removed by centrifugation
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at 10,000g for 15 min. The supernatant was mixed with an equal volume of chloroform and
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centrifuged at 5,000g for 5 min to further purify the phage particles. The phage particle-containing
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supernatant was filtrated through 0.22 µm polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) CHROMAFIL®
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membrane filters45 and the phage suspension was stored at 4°C.
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Genome sequencing of phages: Genomes of all marine phages were sequenced in order to either
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confirm characteristics of phages described recently i.e. PSA-HM1, PSA-HP1, PSA-HS2 and H3/49
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(in particular to exclude nucleotide changes in the genomes that may occur during phage
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propagation) or to characterize phages whose genome was still unknown i.e. vB_PSPS-H40/1 and
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vB_PSPS-H6/1. DNA was extracted using the protocol of Thurber et al.46 and shotgun genome
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sequencing was performed on an Illumina MiSeq system using standard Illumina protocols for
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generation of paired 150-bp reads. Resulting sequencing reads were de novo assembled using
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Geneious assembler (Geneious R9, Biomatters, Auckland, New zealand) and alignments were
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performed with ClustalW.47 Genome sequences of PSA-HM1, PSA-HP1, PSA-HS2 and H3/49 were
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100% identical with the corresponding sequences available at GenBank (KF302034, KF302037,
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KF302036 and KJ018214). Sequences of vB_PSPS-H40/1 and vB_PSPS-H6/1 (GenBank acc. Nos.
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KU747973 and KX257490) confirmed these two phages belong to the Siphoviridae family.
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Characterization of surface properties. The zeta-potentials (ζ) were approximated from the
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electrophoretic mobility measured by Doppler electrophoretic light scattering analysis (Zetamaster,
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Malvern Instruments, Malvern, UK) of phage suspension in 100 mM phosphate buffer (PB; 0.87 g L-
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1
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contact angles of water θw, formamide θf and methylene iodide θmi were measured using a DSA 100
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drop-shape analysis system (Krüss GmbH, Hamburg, Germany) as described earlier48. Phage lawns
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were prepared by deposition of phage lysate of high concentration (i.e. 109 - 1010 PFU mL-1) onto
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Whatmann inorganic AnoDisc filter (0.02 µm, diameter: 25 mm). The filters were then dried for 2 h
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and contact angles were measured by applying 3–5 droplets on a filter using at least two filters per
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liquid tested (i.e. n ≥ 6 measurements).
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Column deposition experiments: All experiments were performed in triplicates at 25°C in heat-
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sterilized vertical percolation columns (i.d.: 1 cm; L.: 10 cm). These were made of borosilicate glass
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and confined at the bottom by a glass frit (pore size: 100 – 160 µm). The columns were wet packed
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in 100 mM PB with clean, sterile commercial quartz sand (Euroquarz-group) with a d50 median
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particle size of 0.31 mm, a porosity of ≈ 0.4 (estimated gravimetrically), and a total pore volume
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(PV) of 2.86 mL. Prior to the filling, the sand was washed with deionized water, heated at 400°C for
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3 h and then allowed to cool down under sterile conditions. Unfilled columns showed no retention of
K2HPO4, 0.68 g L-1 KH2PO4; pH = 7). In order to calculate the surface free energies of the phages,
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any of the phages. Sand-filled columns were allowed to equilibrate by flushing at least 8 PV of clean
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PB. Then homogenized phage suspensions (106-107 PFU mL-1 in 100 mM PB) were circulated with a
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peristaltic pump at a hydraulic flow rate of 0.7 × 10-4 m s-1 (19.8 mL h-1) from the top to the bottom
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of the columns, i.e. at flow conditions lower than in coarse gravel aquifers (23 - 44 m day-1).32 To
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characterize the flow conditions prevailing in the columns and as reference to evaluate the arrival
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time of studied phages. Bromide tracer tests were conducted in triplicate using 0.05 g L-1 KBr.
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Bromide concentrations in the outflow of the columns were quantified by ion chromatography
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(Dionex ics-2000; Dionex Corporation, USA). Phage transport and deposition under saturated
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conditions were determined by comparing the PFU concentrations of the influent and effluent as
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described earlier:27,49 about 8 PV of phage suspensions in PB were applied to the columns, the
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columns then rinsed with ≈ 4 PV with phage-free PB to assess the reversibility of phage adhesion
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and, finally, with ≈ 4 PV of pure water (Milli-Q) to study the effect of electrostatic repulsion on
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phage adhesion. The colloidal stability of the phage suspensions over 3 h (i.e. the duration of column
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transport experiments) was quantified in independent batch experiments using identical buffer
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composition and temperature. PFU in samples taken over time was followed assuming that any
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aggregate forms only a single plaque. Colloidal stability was calculated as PFU relative to the initial
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number. Phage lysate was prepared in concentrations of 108 - 1010 PFU mL-1 using PB buffer and
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stored in glass vials at room temperature under static condition (i.e. no agitation). Samples were
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taken at the beginning of the experiment and after 3 h to evaluate the colloidal stability and viability
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of the phages.
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Theory
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Calculation of phage collision efficiency ( ), deposition rate coefficient (Kd) and mass recovery
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(M). Filtration of phages was approximated using the colloidal filtration theory50 in columns
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assuming spherical phages with properties as given in Table 1. For a detailed explanation of the
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calculations, the reader is referred to Tufenkji & Elimelech 2004,51 the filtration equation of
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Rajagopalan and Tien52 and the SI, respectively. Therein, the was defined as the ratio of the
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experimental single-collector removal efficiency ( ; f. eq. S1) to the predicted single-collector
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contact efficiency ( ; eq. S2)51. The is a function of four dimensionless groups: the
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aspect ratio NR, the Peclet number NPe, the van der Waals number NvdW, and the gravitational number
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Ngr. 53,54 The deposition rate coefficient (Kd, h-1 ) relates to the attachment efficiency ( )55,51 by eq. 1
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= ()
(1)
! ɳ#
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where vP is the pore water velocity (cm min-1), L the column length in cm, ac the mean radius of the
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sand (0.29 mm), $ the porosity of the column packing, and ɳ0 the single collector efficiency
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determined as given by Tufenkji and Elimelech, 2004.51 The Kd is calculated by eq. 2
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%& =
!
'
+
ln * +# -
(2)
,
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where C0 is the initial concentration of the phages (PFU mL-1) and Ct is the effluent concentration
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calculated as the average of > 10 steady state data points of the phages’ breakthrough curves (PFU,
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mL-1) as represented in present study.55 The mass recovery (M) was calculated as the ratio of phages
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in the effluent relative to that of the influent as inferred from the difference of inlet and outlet phage
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concentration as described by eq. 3
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∑ + ∆
. = ∑ + , ∆ ∗ 100
(3)
#
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Prediction of the effect of XDLVO phage-sand interaction energy. Phages were assumed to
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follow the principles of colloid chemistry.50 As Lewis acid-base interactions are known to play an
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important role in the total interaction energy between phages and surfaces,56 the extended XDLVO
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interaction energies between phages and sand particles. Therein the total interaction energy 345678
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is the sum of the electrostatic repulsion (3956 ), the Lifshitz-van der Waals (36: ) and the acid-base
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(3;< ) interaction energy. While 3956 and 36: are functions of the separation distance h (nm)
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between two surfaces57,58, 3;< compares the energy status between attached and nonattached
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situations (eq. 4):
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345678 (ℎ) = 3;< +3956 (ℎ) + 36: (ℎ)
(4)
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As the phages studied are far smaller than sand particles we applied a sphere-plate geometry.56 3?@'
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3'A and 3BC were calculated as described by Chrysikopoulos and Syngouna, 2012.56 For 3BC and
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3'A calculations and in contrast to Chrysikopoulos and Syngouna, 2012 we used experimentally
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determined Gibbs free energies and Hamaker constants of all phages, respectively. The Gibbs free
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energies (Table S1) and Hamaker constants were calculated using the surface free energies of studied
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phages applying eqs. S8 and S4, whereas surface free energy calculations were based on measured
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contact angles (θ) of phages using water, formamide and methylene iodide as liquids and the Young
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equation.59
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RESULTS
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Physico-chemical surface properties, size and morphology of phages
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Surface charge and hydrophobicity of the six marine phages and the two coli-phages were
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determined by their zeta-potentials (ζ) and water contact angles, respectively (Fig. S1A). A broad
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contact angle range from 38o to 95o was observed (Table 1). The phages could be clustered into three
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groups: (i) poorly hydrophobic phages (≈ 40o: PSA-HM1, PSA-HP1 and PSA-HS2), (ii) moderately
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hydrophobic phages (≈ 53-61o: vB_PSPS-H40/1, vB_PspS-H6/1 and H3/49), and (iii) hydrophobic
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phages (≈ 84-95o: T4 and MS2). In the transport buffer (pH = 7) all phages had slightly negative
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surface charges as inferred from similar zeta potentials (ζ = -11 – -18 mV). Phage morphology and
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size varied according to previous own work60,61 and literature data (cf. Table 1). Belonging to
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different families, the phages represented four different morphologies: contractile tail (Myoviridae),
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noncontractile long tail (Siphoviridae), noncontractile short tail (Podoviridae), and icosahedral
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without tail (Leviviridae). Phage sizes ranged from 25 to 200 nm (Table 1).
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Phage transport in saturated percolated columns
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In order to determine transport and deposition characteristics of the phages, experiments were
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conducted using sand-packed columns under continuous, saturated flow conditions. Each experiment
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was divided in three phases: after flushing of 7 PV of dilute phage suspensions in PB, 4 PV of phage-
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free PB followed by a switch in the column inflow to deionized water were applied. The last two
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phases served to assess the reversibility of phage adhesion and to study if electrostatic repulsion
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would lead to phage detachment, respectively. Plots of relative phage densities in the outflow (C/C0)
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against time (normalized to the number of PV exchanged) showed about 0.5 of the C0 at 1 PV and
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were similar to the behavior of KBr tracer (Fig. S2). One exception was for the phage H3/49 which
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exhibited rapid attachment to sand and reached quasi-equilibrium (Fig. S2). After about 2 PV a
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leveling off of the breakthrough curves at plateaus of different heights were observed (Fig. S2).
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Calculated maximal coverages of the sand surface of < 0.2% were calculated and excluding
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substantial changes of the collector surface properties. Subsequent flushing with phage-free PB
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resulted in poor tailing pointing at irreversible attachment of the phages. Changing the inflow from
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PB to deionized water led 0 - 6% of the attached phages to flush out (Table 1); i.e. only partially
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reverted the deposition of the phages despite of a clearly increased electrostatic repulsion between
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the sand and the phage surfaces.
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efficiencies (eq. 1) and deposition rate coefficients (eq. 2) of all phages. It further shows the
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following trend of the different phages’ mass recoveries: MS2 > PSA-HP1 > PSA-HS2 > PSA-HM1
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> vB_PspS-H6/1 > vB_PspS-H40/1 > T4 > H3/49. Conspicuously, the smallest phages MS2 and
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PSA-HP1 exhibited the highest mass recovery regardless of their hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity.
62,63
Table 1 summarizes the mass recoveries (eq. 3), collision
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Deposition rate coefficients and calculated collision efficiencies ranged from 0.21 to 0.02 h-1 and
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0.34 to 0.01, respectively. Phages with fast deposition rates and high collision affinities (i.e.
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vB_PspS-H40/1, T4 and H3/49) thereby exhibited low mass recoveries (Table 1). Hydrophobic and
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moderately hydrophobic phages exhibited lower collision efficiencies (Fig. S2B) and deposition rate
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coefficients (Fig. S2Dand thus a lower mass recovery (Fig. 1) than poorly hydrophobic phages. One
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exception such latter trend was phage MS2 where the small size of MS2 seems to determine its
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transport behavior. The mass recoveries of the poorly hydrophobic phages varied by the order of:
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PSA-HP1 (Podoviridae) > PSA-HS2 (Siphoviridae) > PSA-HM1 (Myoviridae) (Fig. 1). Data from
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control experiments revealed high colloidal stability and no loss of phage viability in the transport
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buffer used (Table 1).
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Calculation of the phage-sand interaction energies
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Phage-sand interaction energy profiles were calculated using the extended DLVO (XDLVO) theory
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(Fig. S3, Table 2) based on the sphere-plate model.56 For the experimental conditions applied, the
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interaction energy profiles indicated repulsive interactions for MS2, PSA-HP1, PSA-HS2 and PSA-
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HM1 (Φmax1 = 0.003–0.37 kbT) and attractive interactions for vB_PspS-H6/1, vB_PspS-H40/1, H3/49
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and T4 phages (Φmax1 = -0.046 – -0.011 kbT) (Fig. S3, Table 2). The two phages with the highest
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mass recovery (PSA-HP1, MS) exhibited the highest Φmax1 (53). Although the XDLVO calculations
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indicated the existence of secondary energy minima (Φmin2) at h ≈ 12 nm, their depths for all phages
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were shallow ( hydrophobicity ≥ morphology. Likely due to size exclusion effects69,70 smaller
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phages (≤ 77 nm) were best transported with their transport efficiency being independent of the
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surface hydrophobicity, as seen from similar mass recovery of the poorly hydrophobic PSA-HP1 (M
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= 75%) and the hydrophobic MS2 phage (M = 82%). Good transport arising from low collision
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efficiency of small phages is also in line with comparisons of differently sized phi X 174, MS2, and
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T4 phages showing better retention of large phages in rapid sand filtration42 as well as with a report
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of efficient transport of the MS2 phage.71,42,72 It also agrees with a previous report demonstrating that
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phages of < ≈ 60 nm size are less retained than larger phages37 and that rod shaped particles (such as
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long tailed phages) have higher retention and lower reversibility than spherical particles due to
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orientation effects during transport in saturated porous media.73 Such findings confirm our results
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that the morphology of phages of similar hydrophobicity (PSA-HP1, PSA-HS2 and PSA-HM1 or
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vB_PspS-H6/1 and H3/49 (Fig. 1)) is highly influential. Comparison of PSA-HP1, PSA-HS2 and
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PSA-HM1 shows that the short-tail phage PSA-HP1 is less retained than the noncontractile long tail
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phage PSA-HS2, or the contractile tail phage PSA-HM1. Due to probable interferences of size and
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morphology we observed the following trend of phage mass recovery: Leviviridae (icosahedral, no
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tail) > Podoviridae (noncontractile short tail) > Siphoviridae (noncontractile long tail) ≥ Myoviridae
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(contractile tail). This suggests that morphology controls the transport of phages as also has been
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described for the human adenovirus (HAdV).74 Small-sized MS2 phages excluded, we found a
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negative correlation of water contact angle and mass recovery (Fig. 1) underpinning the effect of
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hydrophobic interactions on the deposition and removal of phages36,75,76,39; in particular at water
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contact angles of > 65o.56
302 303
Phage-sand interaction energies and phage deposition
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Using the XDLVO approach, we calculated the distance-dependent interaction energies between the
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phages and the sand surface (Table 2 and Fig. S3). This model estimates the interaction energy as a
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function of surface to surface distance h for a phage approaching a sand grain (eq. 4). It is
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characterized by three distinct interaction energies: the primary minimum (Φmin1) as the deep energy
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at small h from the sorbent surface, the secondary minimum (Φmin2) as the shallow energy at
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relatively large distance, and the maximum energy barrier to attachment and detachment (Φmax1).50
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Although phages do not have smooth surfaces and are composed of various protein macromolecules
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and hence are far from being ideal colloidal particles, we found good agreement between calculated
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interaction energy profiles and our experimental results which were also shown in other studies
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under similar conditions.56 The XDLVO calculations proposed the existence of secondary energy
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minima (Φmin2) at h ≈ 12 nm; their depths, however, were shallow (