MENDELEEV AND THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES' HENRY M. LEICESTER College of Physicians an& Surgeons, San Francisco, California
MENDELEEY, the greatest RusD m m i IVANOVICA sian scientist of his day, was never elected to membership in the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, although this was supposed to be the highest honor R u e sia could give to her notable scientists. The reasons which lay behind this strange neglect furnish an interesting example of the effectof political and social conditions on purely scientific questions. The Academy of Sciences was founded by Peter the Great in 1725 in imitation of the scientific academies of western Europe.= Its announced aim was the stimulation of all fields of Russian science. It was allowed to elect its own members, who were given a comfortable salary, living quarters, and private laboratories, so that they could devote themselves entirely to their scientific work. According to the statutes by which it was governed, in the election of new members, "Russian scholars are t o be preferred t o foreigners with equal attsinm e n t ~ . " ~At the time of its founding, however, there were practically no Russian scientists, and of necessity the members were all foreigners, chiefly Germans. These men soon became entrenched in positions of authority, and when Russians began t o attain scientific distinction, the Germans formed a compact group, the so-called "German Party," which used every means in its power to preserve its privileges and prevent the election of Russian members to the Academy. For over one hundred years, the Academy was the sole center of scientific research in Russia, but in the early years of the nineteenth century newly founded universities began t o establish scientific departments, and by 1850 a considerable grou5 of able Russians held professorships in many new scientific centers throughout the Russian empire. These men could no longer be denied admittance to the Academy, but the German party remained dominant, and its members did their best to hinder the advance of the Russians. They were the more active in their opposition since they recognized that their own scientific authority was weakened by the new research laboratories. Thus, by 1880, the German party was fighting for its life, and it was supported in the struggle by the more extreme conservatives who dominated the bureaucratic government.
' Presented before the Division of History of Chemistry at the 113th meeting of the American Chemical Society in Chicago. April 19-23, 1948. H. M., J. CAEM.EDUC., 24,439 (1947). LEICESTER, "D. I. Mendeleev." S S ~P. V.. ~ AND ~ V. ~ A.~ SLETOVA. . Journal-Newspaper Press, Moscow, 1933, pp. 92-5.
These politicians feared the liberalizing influence of science on young Russian students and wished to prevent the spread of scientific subjects in the universities. I n addition, many of the bureaucrats came from Baltic German families and so sympathized with the German party for racial reasons. In 1880 the permanent secretary of the Academy was Konstatjn Stepanovich Veselovskir, a statistician and political economist,' an extreme conservative, and a member of the German party. The president of the Academy was an official, Admiral Litke, and much influence was exerted by Count Dmitril Tolstoi who was t o become president two years later. Tolstoi was one of the most reactionary politicans of the time. As Minister of Education he had been responsible for the socalled reforms of 1871 which eliminated science teaching from the gymnasia in favor of a strictly classical education. It was characteristic of the political control of the Academy of Sciences that such an opponent of science could be elected its president. In 1880, chemistry was represented in the Academy by N. N. Zinin, in the chair of chemical technology, and A. M. Butlerov in the chair of chemistry. Zinin had introduced modernwrganic chemistry to Russia and had founded a school of research a t Kazan University in 1840-1850 to which most of the leading organic chemists of Russia later belonged. Butlerov, a student of Zinin, was one of the outstanding chemists of Europe, and shares with Kekule the honor of introducing the structural theory of orzanic chem~stryt o the world. Ilutlerov \\.as then professor of organic chrrnkty a t the Vniwrsiry of St. Pt~ttnburgand n vl~rsepcrs(mill frierd of Mendeleev. I n February, 1880, Zinin died. I n accordance with custom, the Academy named a-committee of four to make nominations for his successor. The committee was composed of the mineralogist, Koksharov, the physicists, Vil'd and Gadolin, and the chemist, Butlerov. After some consideration, Butlerov and Koksharov proposed the names of Mendeleev and of Beketov, who was Rector of Kharkov and a popular theoretical chemist. Vil'd and Gadolin nominated F. K. Beilstein, professor in the Technical I n ~ t i t u t e . ~ At this time, Mendeleev was professor of chemistry at the University of St. Petersburg and was reaching the height of his fame. He had announced the periodic law in 1869, but for a time little attention had been paid
' MENSHUTKIN, B. N., Eng. Econ. Messenger (U. S. S. R.), 5, No. 8-9, 1-16 (1925). 39
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~truggle."~ Veselovskil's views wereevenmore clearly expressed in his ownaceount of Mendcleev's nomination. He said, "Academician Butlerov, a t that time a professor in the Univcrsity, constantly waged open warfare against the Academy, and to oblige his university colleagues, more than once tried to introduce Mendeleev into the Academv. " ,aeainstthewishesof the Physico-mathematical Scction. When the vacancy occurred for Ordinary Academician in Technology, Butlerov, obstinate and malicious towards the Academy, nominated Mendeleev for it, though he well knew that there were not enough voices in favor of the emCourlesy d the Edgar Fehs Smith Collection, University of Pennsylvania didate: but he maliciouslv ~ende1ee.rand Beibtein at the ZWth Anniversary of t h e Prussien Asadomy of Sciences, Berlin. 19M1. rejoiced in revenging him~ ~to f t ~ a d ~ ~ b ~ . ~ .w e l t . ~ ~ ~ d 0 winkler. 1 t . ~ h seated: ~ ~ ~ self. ~ by . causing an un~ . i b t ~R i ~ . ~M ~~ ~B ~ ~ ~ coaee. ~~ ~I ~ ~~ ~ ,~ . ~ . pleasant scandal for the A~ademy."~ In addition to this struggle within the Academy, t o it. It was considered merely another attempt, like those of Dobereiner, Newlands, and others, to propose there were personal feelings involved. At the time that a theory, but its actual value was considered slight. Count Tolstoi had introduced his repressive measures However, Mendeleev had done more than any of his in education, Mendeleev had been a member of a compredecessors. He had predicted the existence and prop- mission to advise Tolstoi. 'Mendeleev disapproved erties of three new elements. In 1875 Lecoq de Bois- strongly of the new policy and did not hesitate to say so baudran discovered the first of these, gallium, and in openly. The Minister of Education was angry, and for 1879 Nilson found the second, scandium. The brilliant the rest of his life did his best to injure Mendeleev in c o n h a t i o n of Mendeleev's predictions amazed the every possible way. He could not find any open chemical world and quickly brought h i full measure method for harming the scientist; but his power in the of fame. I n 1877 he was elected a corregponding mem- Academy permitted him to work closely with the ber of the Academy of Sciences6with the warm recom- German party, with whose policies he sympathized mendation of both Butlerov and Zinin. Thus, by 1880 in any case. Beforeahis death in 1889, he told Vesehe was recognized in Russia and in the rest of the world lovskii, "Only remember, Mendeleev must not be as an outstanding genius. Scientists everywhere took recognized by the Academy in any way."7 Thus, Butlerov was well justified in his doubts as to it for granted that his election to the Academy was certain. the election of his colleague and friend. However, However, Butlerov understood the true conditions, he urged his cause in a long public letters which clearly and knew the difficultiesfaced by the candidacy of Men- shows what he felt to be the most effective argument deleev. The old enmity between the German and Rus- he could use in this case. Although he stressed the sian parties continued with unabated vigor in the inner periodic law and its remarkable confirmation he laid circles of the Academy. The struggle was augmented most emphasis on the tremendous reputation which by the rivalry between the Academy and the univer- Mendeleev enjoyed abroad. He quoted the laudatory sities. At one time Veselovskijl had told Butlerov, words of such renowned chemists as Wurtz, Lothar, using the contemptuous second person singular, "Thou Meyer, Crookes, and others. Bearing in mind that it wishest that we ask the permission of the university 6 for our selections. hat-will never happen. We do B. G., "Lomonosov, Lobachevskil, Mendeleev," not need the university. Even if i t were a better Academy of Sciences Press, Moscow and Leningrad, 1945, p. 226. ' MENDELEEVA, A. I., "Mendeleev inLife," Sebashnikov Press, institution than the Academy, still we would not need Pp. 118-19. it. Meanwhile, we will live on, we. will continue to M o ~ c ~ w p Quoted in full bv TISHCHENKO. V. E.. J. RUSS.Phm. Chem.
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was the chair of technology for which his friend was a candidate, Butlerov pointed out the numerous contributions of Mendeleev to applied chemistry, and his attempts to aid Russian industry, but in his conclusion he returded to his major point and again stressed the great prestige of Mendeleev in Germany and England. It is clear that he was attempting to force the hand of the Academy by making the election of Mendeleev a point of national honor. The German party, however, was immune to any such arguments. The election was held on November 11, 1880. Sixteen members of the Physico-mathematical Section were entitled to vote, while as exofficio members the permanent secretary of the Academy had one vote and the president two. Mendeleev received nine favorable votes, and ten were cast against him. There can be little doubt as t o the origin of three of these negative votes, so that the majority of the actual members of the section favored him.9 As soon as news of the vote was received, a storm of indignation broke both in the scientific and the popular press, for Mendeleev was universally recognized as the greatest living Russian scientist. The newspapers ran columns of comment, and one of them raised by public subscription more than 3500 rubles t o be awarded in the name of Mendeleev for chemical research.1° The Russian universities sent messages of indignation, and many, including his own, made him a n honorary member. Scientificsocieties in Russia and abroad extended him the same recognition. The attitude of Mendeleev himself toward these honors is summed up in the acknowledgment which he sent t o the Rector of Kiev University: "I heartily thank you and the Senate of Kiev University. I understand that this action is offered in the name of Russia and not for me.'I3 The Russian Chemical Society, of which Mendeleev had been one of the founders, drew up a statement which concluded with the words: ,"The indisputable value of the services of this candidate, whose equal cannot be found in Russian science, and Ris reputation abroad, make his rejection entirely incomprehensible. I n view of the repeated failure on the part of the Physico-mathematical Section of the Academy of Sciences to select the best Russian scientists, we consider it necessary to take public notice of this." This statement was distributed to all members of the Society, and almost all signed it. Some even sent telegrams with such messages as, "I would sign twenty times." Only one Russian chemist did not add his name to this statement. Instead, he suggested that an address be presented to Mendeleev, reading, "Although there are people who consider that Dmitril Ivanovich is not worthy of the highest scientific position, yet we, who are more competent t o judge than anyone else, find that in our science, Dmitrir Ivanovich is an outstanding scholar." The chemist who made this suggestion was Friedrich Konrad Beilstein.
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Beilstein" a t this time was professor of chemistry at the Imperial Techhical Institute. His family was of German origin, but his grandfather had settled in St. Petersburg, where the family lived in the German section of the city. Beilstein himself was educated in the German schools of the Russian capital and a t an early age went to Germany to study chemistry. He remained in Germany for thirteen years, hut in 1866 he returned to Russia t o take over the position which Mendeleev relinquished when he was called to the University of St. Petersburg. I n this position Beilstein remained for thirty years. Most of his time was occupied in compiling his "Handbook." As the work on the book progressed, he grew more and more out of touch with his students and his Russian colleagues. The difficulties and political unrest which troubled the Russian universities meant little to him. He was of an unsympathetic nature and an ironical disposition. He was bored by the student riots and once remarked, "Next week in my lectures I come t o sulfur, and so the student riots must begin." He remained in Russia only because he felt that there he could devote all his time to writing, while if he returned to Germany he would be required to perform work in the laboratory. Thus he kept apart from the university and scientific circles of his native country, viewing them with a detached and pessimistic eye. Naturally, these views coincided with those of men such as Tolstoi, and Beilstein had a wide acquaintance among court officials and bureaucrats and was known to exercise considerable influence in these circles.12 Following the rejection of Mendeleev, it was this man who was elegted to the vatrant chair of the Academy early in 1881. The matter was o5cially closed, and when it might have been reopened after the death of Butlerov in 1886, Mendeleev himself prevented this by refusing the nomination for the chair of chemistry. The Academy elected Beketov, the, other nominee of 1880. However, the scientists and students did not forget. Even ten years later feeling remained high. I n the early years of the nineties Mendeleev attended a jubilee meeting of the Russian Chemical Society, and the description of his reception which has been given by a member of the first-year class skorvs how the Academy was still regarded. "Such an important event could not take place without the first-year students. They filled the public hall of the university. There were no suitable places for them but they thronged the passages and the aisles. I remember that in the chair a small person showed a heavy volume of his own composition on organic chemistry. This was the man elected by the Academy of Sciences t o the chair of chemistry instead of Mendeleev, the honorary member of most learned societies, the honorary doctor of most universities, even those of ~ u s t r a l i i but , slighted by his own Academy of Sciences. But the little academician had to
' Reference 6, pp. 326-7.
MENSAUTKIN, B. N., "Lifeand Activities of NikolaI Alexmdrovich Menshutkin," Frolov Press, St. Petersburg, 1908, p. 224. 10
'2
Reference 10, pp. 223-4. HJELT,E., Ber., 40, 5 0 5 3 4 (1907). (Continued on page 444)
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MENDELEEV AND THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (Catintied from page 441)
interrupt his speech, due to a roar of applause. I n the . Mendeleev and did not value Academician Beilstein."'3 passage, above the sea of heads, there appeared and Time has fully justified the judgment of the students advanced a head of floating gray hair-Mendeleev. and of most of Mendeleev's contemporaries. Today This was a sincere ovation by the young scientists, the name of Beilstein signifies only the handbook, but more, a fervent demonstration against the Academy whose major development came from the hands of of Sciences: 'There is the real choice, and as for yours, successors of its original author. Mendeleev, on the we will not even clap our hands.' The students pas- other hand, continues t o hold his place in the small sionatelv iudned the case of the learned chemist and nrour, of front rank chemists of all time. concludkd; '1;is a h e thing to discuss organic chem,,OZAROYSKAYA, O, E,, r t D , I, in the Reoolleoistry when you are only a child in inorganic!' I n our tiom of 0. E. Ozarovskaya," Federation Press, MO~OOV, 1~29, zeal we young people were among the followers of pp. 11-12.
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