232
I S D V X T R I A L A S D ESGIiYEERISG C H E M I S T R Y
curved. In this event a straight-line tangent a t the point a t which the heat of vaporization is deqired is used to give the slope. Table I1 s h o w the heats of vaporization computed by means of Equations 6 and 8, with water as reference substance, a t the temperature of the boiling point. Table 11-Heats SUBSTANCE n-Propyl acetate Bromobenzene Cyclohexane Carbon tetrachloride Methyl formate
of Vaporization Calculated from Duhring and Reciprocal Temperature Lines AH A H CALCD. A H C4LCD OBSERVED FROM 1 / T FROM DLHRING 8200 Si20 8450 9050 7210 7150 6750
9060
7540 7340 6760
9030 7340 6990
6920
Formic acid, like acetic acid, does not give satisfactory checks by this method, the observed heat of vaporization being 5510 calories per mol, while the Ddhring relation predicts 8290 and the reciprocal temperature formula 8070. Considering the assumptions made in integrating the Clausius equation, and in making use of it in its approximate form, it is surprising that checks as close as these can be obtained froin the reciprocal temperature and Duhring lines.
1-01. 22, No. 3
Further, the personal equation enters to a large extent in constructing these lines and in determining their slope, adding another source of error. It is interesting to note the similarity between Equation 6 and the empirical equation of Schultz (6) for entropies of vaporization. This equation may be stated
If for t’he mean heat of vaporization over the temperat’ure range in question we substitute the actual heat of vaporization a t the given temperature, Equation 6 becomes identical x-ith that of Schultz. Literature Cited (1) Baker and Waite, Trans. A m . Znst. Chem. Eng., 13 (2), 223 (1921); C h e n . N e t . Eng., 26, 1137 (1921). (2) Cox, IND.ENG.CHEM.,16, 592 (1923). (3) Getman, “Outlines of Theoretical Chemistry,” 4th ed., p . 78. (4) Leslie and Cam, IND.ENG.CHEM.,17, 810 (1925). (5) Lewis and Weber, Ibid., 14, 486 (1922). (6) Schultz, Ibid., 21, 557 (1929).
Metallurgical Research from the Chemical Point of View’ H. W. Gillett BATTELLE MEMORIAL IKSTITUTE, COLUMBUS, OHIO
H E value of research is far better appreciated today invested, chemical and allied industries spend 2.4 per cent than ever before. Science is front-page news. That and the metal-working industries 2.1 per cent for this purpose. it is, is very largely due to the efforts of the AMERICAN Importance of Metallurgy CHEMIC.4L SOCIETY and to such interpreters of science as the late Edwin E. Slosson. Metallurgy is a key industry. Of the ten leading inScience is back-page news, too. Glance through the ad- dustries from the point of value of manufactures, eight are vertising pages of the Saturday Evening Post, for example, metal-working and metal-using industries. Even those and you will find shrewd advertisers using the words “re- industries which do not directly make metallic products search,” “science,” “experiment,” “testing” to stress the are highly dependent on them. The food industry needs fact that their products have reached their present perfectioii agricultural implements and tin cans; the lumber industry, because of long and painstaking research. This means that, saws; the chemical industry, tanks and piping; and so on not only do the manufacturers believe in research, but the down the line. public does too, since it pays to impress the public that reTransportation-by railway, steamboat, automobile, and search is being carried on. aircraft-is today in vehicles that average some 90 per cent There are today a thousand research laboratories in the or more metallic. Water, gas, electricity, and telephone country, exclusive of college, university, and government and telegraph messages are transported by metallic pipes laboratories, in addition to control and testing laboratories. or wires; even the radio waves depart from, and are collected Statistics in regard to the amount expended in the research by, metallic apparatus. activities of the nation are pretty much guesswork. The A normal household uses alloys of a t least twenty different dividing lines between research in pure science, industrial metals. One finds them from the bathroom to the kitchen, research, development work, plant “trouble-shooting,” on his person, in his mouth, and in his automobile. In hi, attention t o customer complaints, and routine analysis and daily work and his daily life everyone is served by metals, inspection are so hazy that, without a census in which all and is benefited by the search for better and cheaper alloys. items of so-called research are clearly classified, one is at sea Relation of Metallurgy t o Chemistry in guessing the extent of research. It has been estimated that the United States spends 10 million dollars and has 3000 Metallurgy is a branch of chemistry. If we look a t the workers in pure science and 200 million dollars with 30,000 industrially spectacular achievements of metallurgy in recent workers in applied science. Since the Bell Telephone Labo- years, outside of purely mechanical developments, we might ratories alone have a yearly appropriation of some 19 select such items as: the use of alloy steels such as those of million dollars for research and development, and employ nickel, chromium , molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, manga6000 people, the above estimate is probably of the right nese, silicon, copper, aluminum, zirconium, and titanium, order of magnitude. KO one can state exactly what is ex- and the knowledge of their heat treatment; the development pended for research by or for any one industry, but the De- of strong, heat-treatable light alloys-these two advances partment of Commerce quotes a statement that chemistry having played a major role in the development of modern and metallurgy are in the lead since, on a basis of capital automobiles and aircraft; stainless steel and other highchromium alloys for corrosion resistance; flotation, which 1 Received January 22, 1930 Presented a t the meeting of the Detroit has made possible the economical utilization of ores conSection of the American Chemical Society, December 10, 1929
T
,
" ,
.
,
I .
2.
, ( , .,
.
,, I
...
, > I /
,
.,
' I
//
I .
...! ..
I . , . ,
: .
,, .
. /..I
hiarch, 1930
I S D V S T R I A L AYD ESGIaIISEERISGCHEMISTRY
The establishment of the National Physical Laboratory of England, which is one of the outstanding metallurgical laboratories of that country, is said to be due partly to tlie efforts of members of the Royal Society. This laboratory i- quite analogous to our Bureau of Standards, though it differs in doing some private and secret industrial research for individual firms for fees. It is primarily supported directly by public funds, and has farmed out to it many jobs from the nineteen research associations in England which, like the British Cast Iron Research Association and the British Son-Ferrous Research Asqociation. are partly supported by contributions from industry and partly by government subvention. These nineteen research associations spend about a million dollars a year, of which about one-third ii governnimt subvention from the Department of Industrial and Scientific Research. The Committee on Heterogeneity of Steel Ingots is doing fundamental work, using the research laboratories of the steel works on a cooperative baiis, quite analogous to our Joint High-Temperature Committee. There are also trade associations like the I3riti.h Tin Industrial Applications Committee. Andrew Carnegie gave $100,000 to the British Iron and Steel Institute to found the Carnegie scholarships for metallurgical research. The Worshipful Society of Goldsmiths contribute3 to the Chemical Society research fund for work in metallurgy. Such universities as Cambridge, Sheffield, and Birmingham, and, of course, the Xational Physical Laboratory do a good deal of fundamental research on metallurgical and allied subjects. The work of E. R. Evans, of Cambridge, on corrosion is a good example of the service a soundly trained, clear-thinking chemist can render to metallurgy. Birmingham has the Midland Laboratory Guild, where control tests for several independent firms making nonferrous products are performed in a joint laboratory. Voolwich Arsenal corresponds to our Watertown Arsenal and Saval Gun Factory, and does quite similar research work. Metallurgical research laboratories occupy an important position in such firms as Brown-Firth, Tickers, Cammel-Laird, Hadfield’s, and many others. F ~ w c ~ - F r a n c ehai the Bureau des poids et niesureq at Sevres, \+here Gulliaume has done so much on steels of the Invar type. Metallurgical work is done a t the government testing laboratory at the Conservatoire des arts et metiers in Pari-. Guillet and Portevin a t the &ole central of Paris, and LeChatelier at the Sorbonne have done much fundamental work. The SociCtC d’encouragementq pour l‘industrie nationale grants small subsidies for research work, some metallurgical work being included. The laboratories of the Schneider works, the Imphy .tee1 works and the Citroen automobile works are noteworthy. BELGIvM-Belgium has the Solvay Foundation>, the Institute of Physics, and has recently started a Sational Foundation for Scientific Research, by private subscription. About 63,500,000were collected, and some $200,000 were distributed last year in grants to support research. Somf, of this research effort may go toward metallurgy. ITaLY-Italy with its electrometallurgical plants has its research laboratoriei, and Giolitti’s metallurgical work a t the Royal Polytechnic School a t Turin is well known. J mar-In Japan, besides smaller groups working in metallurgy at the universities in Tokyo, Kyoto, and Fukuoka, there i i a large staff in the Insitute of Iron, Steel and Other hletals a t Tohoku Imperial University a t Sendai. The Sendai laboratory under Professor Honda has published prolifically in many fields of rnetallurgical research. The laboratory is supported by public funds, private endowment, and by fees
239
for industrial research. Some private corporations, like the hiitsubishi Works, have extensive metallurgical laboratories. RussIa-In Soviet Russia apparently all metallurgical research is now done in purely government institutions. These include the Platinum Institute, laboratories for applied chemistry (which deal with some metallurgical problems), for physics, chemical analysis, for mineralogy, for aeroand hydro-dynamics (this also including some metallurgy), for pure and applied physics, for x-ray work, for electrical research. These are mostly under the Technical Department of the Supreme Council of National Economy. It is said that a grant of $50,000 was recently made to Pavlov’s laboratory of psychology and physiology, and that a street was clowl off because the noise interfered with the experiments. About 35 million dollars per year ii said to be devoted to scientific and industrial research by the Soviet government. CAXAD
