REPORT
FOR
ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTS
Microscopical Scientists, Part I: Their Education and Employment Microscopy as a profession is currently caught in a situation w h i c h is brought about by a rapidly changing science a n d technology. Spurred by intense economic a n d political competition, the body of scientific k n o w l e d g e has g r o w n in a w a y to d e m a n d greater a n d greater specialization b y individual practitioners in the various fields of endeavor. Paradoxically, effective engagement of this competition requires more thorough understanding of scientific regimens outside the practitioner's o w n field. He must specialize—but at the same t i m e , he must liberalize. If he does not, then he faces the risk of becoming, not a scientist, but a technician.
'T'here are administrators and professors who will insist that mi croscopy doesn't belong in pure chemistry—that it is simply the use of another piece of instrumentation. But the demand for microscopical chemists cannot be denied. And the National Science Foundation has provided grants for science teachers interested in learning mi croscopy. How, then, to cope with the demands of industry and gov ernment agencies for microscopical chemists? And how to supply the instruction and experience required by individuals who would directly satisfy those demands? In these two questions lies the nub of a problem bothering many educators today. Should higher ed ucation point toward giving the scientist a very liberal background? Or should the trend be in the direc tion of greater specialization and practicality? Not many years ago, there was a growing tendency to require chem istry students to complete at least an elementary course in microscopy before graduation. But how does one go about dispensing ever in creasing amounts of necessary knowledge during student hours that cannot be ever-increasing? Some things must be de-empha sized. Microscopy apparently is one of those things. The tendency now is to omit it from course work
entirely or, at best, to make it an elective. Is Microscopy α Creative Science?
In establishing and operating a microscopical laboratory, manage ment is concerned with the facili ties, space, and equipment that will be needed. It must decide its re quirements as to personnel as well as salaries to be paid. And it must face the quandary: Is it better to have an experienced microscopist with a broad but not intimate knowledge of other fields of science, or to have a well-trained scientist who may have picked up a knowl edge of microscopy? Conversely, he who would be a microscopist must decide how to go about becoming one. He must eval uate a microscopical career in terms of technical interest, salaries, and future outlook. He, too, must de cide whether it is better to be pri marily a microscopist or to special ize in some other science, with mi croscopy as a secondary skill. Many industrial managers sub scribe to the concept of microscopy as an auxiliary skill or as an addi tional tool of the various scientific professions. Consequently, upon organizing a new microscopical fa cility, it is not an unusual procedure to purchase necessary equipment and designate currently employed
scientists or technicians as opera tors. These may then be sent to some university or supplier for in tensive training, upon completion of which the new group is considered ready for business. Microscopical scientists point out many fallacies in this way of doing it. But what probably upsets them most is the complete disregard of the fact that microscopy is a creative profession, not just a technique. It is this matter of creativity which, probably more than any other factor, becomes the distin guishing characteristic between a scientist and a technician. In mi croscopical science it entails a broad understanding of the problem where the microscopist can be of assist ance. It involves a thorough knowledge of correct preparative techniques. And it requires rare good judgement in selecting, ex amining, and photographing the ap propriate subject, augmented by great skill at interpreting results with a collaborator closely associ ated with broad phases of the prob lem. Thus, ingenuity in preparing specimens, powers of association during observation, and balancing of factors with original information are all areas for creative activity. In general, the creative individual should have a high intelligence, ap propriate background, and an inV O l . 32, NO. 1, JANUARY 1960
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REPORT FOR ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS
This Report for Analytical Chemists is the first of two articles based on the symposium, "Microscopical Scientists: Their Education, Employment, Activities, and Microscopes," which was presented in four sessions of the Division of Analytical Chemistry at Boston, April 5 and 6, 1959. That symposium was organized by Dr. T. G. Rochow, American Cyanamid Co. Certain parts of the articles are based also on two papers given during general sessions at the same national ACS meeting. Authors of all papers presented and session chairmen are listed below:
Dr. W a r r e n W. B r a n d t , P u r d u e University, Session C h a i r m a n Dr. G e o r g e L. Clark, University of Illinois, Session C h a i r m a n X-Ray Microscopy, a Youthful Science a Half-Century Old Dr. R. M . F i s h e r , U n i t e d S t a t e s Steel Corp. Electron Probe Instruments D r . G e o r g e O. G e y , T h e J o h n s H o p k i n s University Microscopist Probes Within the Living and the Dead Dr. Cecil E. H a l l , M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of Technology Electron Microscopy in the Academic Institution Dr. F r a n k l i n A. H a m m , M i n n e s o t a M i n i n g a n d M a n u f a c t u r i n g Co., Session C h a i r m a n The Microscopical Approach. It's No Panacea. Dr. J a m e s H i l l e r , R C A Laboratories The Management of Research and the Professional Microscopist Dr. C h a r l e s D . Jeffries, T h e Pennsylvania S t a t e University The Value to Chemists of Universal Stage Procedures Dr. C. W . M a s o n , Cornell University Chemical Microscopy for Chemical Engineers Dr. E r w i n W. M i l l i e r , T h e Pennsylvania S t a t e University Field Emission Microscopy Dr. E u g e n e G. R o c h o w , H a r v a r d University Some Elementary Applications of Chemical Microscopy to Inorganic Chemistry F . G. R o w e , F . H . M e y e r , D r . H . F . N i c o l a y s e n , O. L. R i g g s , Continental Oil Co. Electron Diffraction and Microscopical Studies of Surfaces on Anodically Polarized Stainless Steels D r . G e o r g e L. R o y e r , American C y a n a m i d Co. Research Management Views the Microscopist Dr. C h a r l e s P . S a y l o r , N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s The Chemical Microscopist in Government Dr. H a r o l d F . Schaeffer, College of E m p o r i a Nineteenth Century American Microscopy D r . C h a r l e s M . S c h w a r t z , Battelle M e m o r i a l I n s t i t u t e Microscopy in Industrial Research D r . M a x S w e r d l o w , Air Force Office of Scientific R e s e a r c h What Is Expected of the Microscopist in Solid State Sciences? D r . D . M a x w e l l T e a g u e , Chrysler Corp., Session C h a i r m a n Microscopy from the Standpoint of Both Management and Scientist D r . J o h n H . L. W a t s o n , Edsel B . F o r d I n s t i t u t e for Medical Research What Is Expected Professionally of an Electron Microscopist? D r . M a r y L. W i l l a r d , T h e Pennsylvania S t a t e University Chemical Microscopy as I See It D r . R. E . W r i g h t , Shell Chemical Corp. Pétrographie Thin Sections in the Industrial Chemical Laboratory H . W. Zieler, Zieler I n s t r u m e n t Co. Analysis of Optical Properties of Opaque Anisotropic Objects with the Polarizing Microscope for Reflected Light
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nate sense of dissatisfaction with things as they are. And he should feel a dedication and absorption in his field. As to the question of whether a problem is in the area of pure or applied research, there are various shades of opinion on the matter. Those who take particular pride in participating only on fundamental problems may define pure research in a very limited way. A problem disdainfully relegated to the "applied" category by such a person may be regarded as "pure" by other scientists or by management. Indeed, there are those, especially in management, who would never use the relative applicability of research as a criterion for a man's creative activities. These insist that if a microscopist is free to think, to redirect his studies, and to work alone or with others at his own discretion, then he is not a technician no matter how routine or applied his work is. This, of course, does not in itself place the stamp of creativity on a person. But it does say that such a man, if creativity is part of his make-up, is working in an atmosphere providing all the requisites for exercising that creativity.
Microscopy as Primary and Secondary Skill
Some persons in management are likewise unconcerned by another question which might provoke much discussion among educators and scientists themselves. Whether microscopy is best done by a trained specialist called a microscopist or by a scientist with microscopical training is immaterial. The important thing is that the scientist must have the knowledge necessary to solve a given problem. Asked for a concise definition of a scientist, an industrial research administrator might reply merely that a scientist doesn't know all the answers and is constantly striving to find them. Be that as it may, many persons having intimate knowledge of the potential benefits to be derived from microscopy are concerned with the best ways of developing and using the science. Dr. John H. L. Watson, head of the Department of
REPORT' FOR ANALYTICAL
Physics at Edsel B. Ford Institute for Medical Research is one of these. Dr. Watson and the Electron Microscope Society of America were interested enough to conduct a survey on the subject a few years ago. Under sponsorship of EMSA he sent out 200 questionnaires and received 86 replies from industrial or nonbiological laboratories and 53 from biological research centers. Dr. Watson defines three groups who are concerned with the use of the electron microscope: research electron microscopist, research scientist, and technician electron microscopist. The results of his survey indicate general agreement with descriptions assigned to members of each group. The research electron microscopist, in addition to formal training in electron microscopy, has a broad scientific background plus special training in chemistry, physics, or biology. He is an electron microscopist first, and often uses his skills in collaboration with scientists in other fields. The more he knows of the over-all problems, the more valuable he is. He can make important contributions to solution of problems, some of which may be out of his own field. His best work is usually done as part of a team.
The research scientist differs in that he is highly trained in some particular scientific field as well as in electron microscopy itself. He has the ability independently to originate, direct, and manage research in his own field, and he may make important contributions to his own field with the use of electron microscopy. The technician electron microscopist must be highly skilled with respect to the instrument itself and allied instruments. He must have had considerable experience in specimen preparation and operation of the electron microscope. He should not be expected to make contributions to solution of problems on his own initiative, and so he must be capable of working effectively with others. He should work with a research electron microscopist or research scientist and should strive toward the status of a research electron microscopist. A research microscopist or research scientist is responsible for selecting representative specimens, knowing exactly how they should be prepared, studying the specimen and its behavior, choosing the areas to be micrographed, maintaining proper resolution, and specifying the number of illustrations to be
CHEMISTS
made. In the final analysis it is he who must interpret the images and draw conclusions. This means that he must be familiar with the field of application. He must be able to develop new techniques or adapt old ones, and also be able to formulate, define, and direct procedures to solve problems. He must have the ability to interpret his work to others. Utilization of the Microscopist
The optimum use of a microscopy laboratory requires efficient use of various types of personnel. The chances of an organization obtaining more than superficial results from its microscopy group are very slim if the personnel are limited to technicians. Further, the chances of a technician becoming more than a technician are very slim if he has only a limited knowledge of the field in which he is working and receives only a limited training in the use of the microscope. Yet there is no questioning the fact that employers are having an increasingly difficult time finding good microscopists, particularly those with creative tendencies. One former electron microscopist, now placed fairly high in management, feels that the trouble stems in part
m^
Figure I
Figure 2
Students and practitioners of chemical engineering should be aware of microscopical aspects of processes, says Dr. C . W . Mason of C o r n e l l University, in order t o clarify what is going on. Extractive crystallization for dewaxing lubricating oils provides an example. Figure I : Solid urea (the large crystals) dissolves in oil containing paraffin, as a waxurea adduct forms in small crystals as a distinct, new phase.
Figure 3
This shows that the urea does not act as a sponge to entrap the wax. Figure 2: The adduct crystals, having been washed free of dewaxed o i l , are decomposed by water, leaving Pseudomorphs of solid wax. Figure 3: The wax has been melted, and has coalesced and crystallized on cooling as relatively large masses. The urea remains in the surrounding aqueous solution. VOL. 32, NO. 1, JANUARY 1960
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REPORT FOR ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS
from our methods of training. To begin with, he says, most industrial and university laboratories are set up on the basis of instruments rather than problems. Conse quently the electron microscopist is a jack-of-all-trades and cannot contribute effectively to any one. People are trained to run instru ments instead of being trained in fields of science in which fine struc ture analysis is but one of the tools used. Whatever the reason, the result is that more and more people from other fields are being asked to do the work of a microscopist after be ing given short, intensive training. Alternatively, too many laborato ries expect too much from the tech nician type of microscopist. Cer tainly there is too much of a tend ency in our country to lay out large sums of money for elegant equip ment and then assign personnel haphazardly to operate it. This ig nores what many experts feel should be a basic precept, namely, that in
PROFESSIONAL OR SCIENTIFIC
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comparison with intelligent, pro ductive people—who are not easily obtained—equipment is a relatively small investment. Some consider this to be a reflection of a curious American immaturity which is characterized by impatience and a demand for quick results, sometimes at the expense of tolerating ineffi ciency. Generally, however, the electron microscopist is expected to perform his duties with a high de gree of perfection.
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REPORT FOR ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS Most flexible general laboratory measuring instrument available. Both microscope and telescope provided — micrometer reads to 0.01 mm and vernier to 0.05 mm — base rotates and is graduated in degrees.
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there must be a certain degree of pressure toward accomplishment. Further, there must be the assur ance of appropriate forms of recog nition when goals are achieved. The common thread running through this fabric of organization is the need for establishing and maintaining communications. For tunately, it should not be as com plex a problem here as in broader areas of management. Concisely, it is important t h a t all necessary technical and business information be easily available to the worker in solving a problem. Operation of a microscopical lab oratory involves no basic differ ences from the operation of any other laboratory. Thus, D r . James Hillier, vice president of RCA L a b oratories, would break down the basic job of laboratory manage ment into two parts. T h e first he calls the "outside job"—outside relative to the laboratory, not the company. This requires t h a t lab oratory management determine re search objectives and transmit re search results to company manage ment. T h a t is, find out what the laboratory should do and, having done it, see t h a t the company uses the results for its greatest profit. The second p a r t of the basic job is called the "inside job". Having determined what the laboratory should do, get the work started. And having started it, maintain productivity of the laboratory—get the job done. An organizational philosophy is spelled out by Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co.'s Dr. F . A. H a m m . He feels that a microscopy laboratory should be divided into two distinct groups where feasible. One of these, the service group, would consist of people who are adept at preparing specimens and in maintaining and operating micro scopes. These people would be cognizant of the limitations in their techniques. An additional point is that the microscopist must educate his superiors, including laboratory management, in regard to inherent limitations and deficiencies in the microscopical approach. Those in the other, or exploratory research, group would have their own instruments, but they would be primarily chemists, physicists,
metallurgists, biologists, or other natural scientists. This group would be left alone to "get lost" in its particular long range programs. While it would be unwise to mix these groups, communications be tween the two should be encouraged in the interest of mutual assistance. The service group would effectively become internal consultants. Β attelle Memorial Institute pre sents another example of organiza tion philosophy suited to particular requirements. D r . C M. Schwartz, of the Institute's Structural Chem istry Division, speaking of such tools as optical crystallography, electron microscopy, and micro x-ray spectroscopy, says t h a t it is important to recognize t h a t the best approach to the solution of the re search problem m a y require a com bination of all these methods. He . adds that, for this reason, the micro scopical group a t Battelle is inte grated closely with the facilities for diffraction and electron-probe anal ysis. By placing the groups t o gether physically, cross-fertilization of thinking in these areas is en couraged. Rewarding the Creative Scientist Providing a proper research en vironment, establishing objectives, combining work groups logically, maintaining effective communica tions—all are necessary to realize maximum benefit from the micro scopical laboratory or group. But the contribution of these factors is largely nullified unless provisions are made for recognition of a man's abilities. Here, we will pass over freedom of action, permission to publish results, and allowances for attending meetings as being selfevident desires. The desire for recognition within the organization as it pertains to title and salary is also self-evident. W h a t is not so obvious is the man ner in which this particular w a n t of the professional microscopist is best satisfied. The usual route of advancement in industrial research laboratories has been up the ad ministration ladder. To follow such a route requires t h a t the potential, leader have a general scientific knowledge of all the work being
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supervised. Thus, administrative people cannot specialize. They must broaden their knowledge. As Chrysler Corp.'s Dr. D. Maxwell Teague puts it, "The chemical microscopist science group leader in industry is a two-sided person; as an administrator he must hire, fire, and set salaries, and as a profes sional he must show others how to work and stand as a referee." Of the dilemma resulting from the situation, Dr. George L. Royer, ad ministrative director of American Cyanamid Co.'s Central Research Division, says, "If the administra tive progression is the only way for advancement, then we may lose a good creative scientific specialist and obtain a poor manager." American Cyanamid, as well as other research organizations, is get ting around the problem by estab lishing professional as well as ad ministrative ladders. At the Cen tral Research Division, the B.S. graduate enters the organization as a "Scientist", that is, as chemist, physicist, chemical engineer, etc. After suitable experience he ad vances to a second level, which has qualifications similar to those of an M.S. degree. Further experience and development qualify him for the third level, the level at which a Ph.D. enters the group. Here he has been advanced to "Research Scientist." From here, movement through levels four and five bring advancement to "Senior Research Scientist." It is at this level that separation occurs and parallel ladders of ad vancement are followed. On the administrative side the man be comes a "Group Leader" and then goes successively to "Manager of a Section" and to "Director of a De partment." The corresponding pro fessional stations carry the titles of "Research Associate," "Research Fellow," and "Senior Research Fel low." The various levels along these routes of advancement are, of course, tied in with suitable levels of compensation. To equate abili ties with position and compensation in a fair manner, a program of evaluation and counseling is used to carry out a firm policy of per sonnel advancement.
REPORT FOR ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS Nineteenth Century Microscopy
Before discussing the education of a microscopist, a quick review of 19th-century microscopy might serve as an informative background. The pursuit of microscopy can be said to have obtained its real start in the United States in 1840, when the first microscopical society in this country was organized in New York City. In the 1870's micros copy got a big lift through the ad vent of what, in retrospect, can be regarded as one of the phenomena of a rapidly growing nation. This consisted of an organization known as the American Postal Microscopi cal .Club, and, stemming from this, the custom of holding annual gatherings which were called "mi croscopical soirees" or "conversa ziones." Both the club and the meetings are described by Dr. Harold F. Schaeffer, of the College of Em poria. Membership in the club was open to anyone and, indeed, it drew its members from all walks of life
and from all parts of the country. The club was broken down into circuits consisting usually of six members in a given locality. At the beginning of a season the first member in a circuit received a box of prepared slides from head quarters at Troy, Ν. Υ., along with a notebook of data and sketches. He retained these for a short period and then passed them on to the next member of the circuit. In this way members received the finest prep arations by experts in the field. The beginner was also encouraged to submit slides resulting from his own efforts. Initiation fee for new members was one dollar; annual dues were a like amount. By 1880 about 30 local micro scopical societies had appeared on the scene, in addition to the Ameri can Society of Microscopists which had originated as a subsection on microscopy within the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1871. For these, an im portant annual event was the soiree, consisting of a variety of demon-
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strations for invited guests. A soiree held by the American Society of Microscopists, or the American Microscopical Society as it came to be called, might employ up to 200 microscopes in its slide exhibits, and as many as 3000 guests might at tend. By the end of the century, however, interest had waned to the extent that soirees were no longer held, most local microscopical so cieties had disbanded, and the American Microscopical Society had rejoined the AAAS. Perhaps a judgement of the mi croscopical profession's develop ment based on the events just de scribed would not be entirely accu rate. If it is true that those at tracted by microscopy came from all walks of life, then perhaps we can ascribe the subsequent waning interest to the inherently fickle character of popular tastes. In the strictly professional sense, growth of the field of microscopy during the early part of the twentieth century wasn't spectacular, but it was a sturdy growth. Remove the super ficial aspects of 19th century inter est and perhaps a suitable curve of growth versus time would show a smooth, albeit shallow, rise since 1840.
Whatever such a curve would show, there is no doubt that recon ciling the needs of laboratory man agement and of the microscopical profession with those of a broader scientific education has become a problem. It is a problem of most direct concern, perhaps, to the edu cators themselves. Dr. Mary L. Willard, of Pennsylvania State University's Department of Chem istry, has been teaching and re vamping an introductory course in chemical microscopy for seniors and graduate students for a number of years. A large number of her grad uates go into industrial positions. Nevertheless, she confesses to an uncertainty as to whether the courses really match the wants of industry, institutes, and universi ties. Do these organizations think more instruction in the use of verti cal illumination in examining amorphous and crystalline surfaces
REPORT
is desirable? Do they want more on the general analysis of microsamples? Do they perhaps want more on the solid state and its structure as related to optical prop erties? Or would they prefer that all this be passed over in favor of concentration on a few fundamental areas? A hint of one answer to these questions is given by Dr. Max Swerdlow, Air Force Office of Sci entific Research. Dr. Swerdlow, a physicist with the Directorate of Solid State Sciences, points out that the science of the solid state of mat ter embraces many areas—physics, chemistry, metallurgy, ceramics, electronics, and high polymers. Much of the success of science re sults from the crossing of barriers associated with the classical disci plines of science. It follows that specialists in microscopy and crys tallography are in an excellent posi tion to add significantly to these successes. An answer also is offered by an educator from another school, Dr. Cecil E. Hall, of the Department of Biology at the Massachusetts Insti tute of Technology. Electron microscopy, he says, definitely has a place in the academic institution. An electron microscopist generally will have advanced training in one of the major branches of science, and a one-term lecture and labora tory course would be an adequate introduction for students with a good background in college physics and mathematics. But proficiency requires at least another year of ex perience, such as can be acquired in postgraduate thesis work.
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A point that is ordinarily apt to be overlooked is made by Dr. Clyde W. Mason, of Cornell University's School of Chemical Engineering. Aside from any feelings employers might have on the matter, he says, there are other reasons for including microscopy in the college curricula. In training chemical engineers, chemical microscopy can supple ment their chemistry and chemical technology courses with an addi tional background of ideas and theory. And, for their use in prac tice, it provides a way of analyzing and attacking diverse and complex problems. "As a basis," he says,
REPORT FOR ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS "for communication and reasoning, in education, with operators and customers, or in research and development, it is as convincing and suggestive as it is unforgettable." D r . Eugene G. Rochow, of H a r v a r d University's D e p a r t m e n t of Chemistry, comes up with an example t o show how training in t h e use of t h e chemical polarizing microscope could have helped one group of students. Seven graduate students, undergoing an examination in inorganic chemistry, were given the following question :
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A colorless crystalline solid is found to be invisible under the crossed polars of a pétrographie microscope. By immersion in standard liquids, the index of refraction is determined to be 1.74. The crystals have no taste, and are insoluble in water. By weighing in water and in air, the density is found to be 3.58. The substance does not dissolve in aqueous bases, but does dissolve slowly in dilute acids (to which it adds no other anion) and in solutions of ammonium salts. What is the substance ? None of t h e students could draw any correct conclusions from t h e first t w o sentences of t h e question; none saw t h e significance of isotropy of t h e crystalline substance. Four of t h e seven confused t h e pétrographie microscope with a polarimeter for measuring optical rotation in liquids. T h e substance was magnesium oxide. This could have been recognized, says D r . Rochow, by one having a n elementary understanding of the properties of crystals. There a r e very few oxides t h a t are colorless and cubic. D r . Rochow believes t h a t here is a good illustration t o show t h a t chemical microscopy should be included as a p a r t of undergraduate courses in qualitative analysis. Better t h a n this would be a special course on t h e subject. A t least, he feels, writers of textbooks on chemical analysis should include a chapter on microscopy. Clearly, microscopy can be as effective in learning a n d teaching synthesis as it is in analysis. I t can demonstrate chemical phenomena t h a t cannot be seen with t h e u n -
aided eye. I s there a better w a y to show phase transformations as t h e y occur, a n d how melting point a n d other quantities change? Above all, microscopy teaches observation, remembrance, thought, a n d use of imagination on a macro scale as well. These comments indicate t h a t a large percentage of t h e workers in each field of science have only a cursory knowledge of t h e broad a s pects of disciplines other t h a n their own. W h a t h a s brought this situation about? One answer is offered b y D r . Swerdlow. H e points out t h a t our society demands large numbers of scientifically trained personnel. T h e result h a s been t h e necessity of lowering academic standards and requiring detailed knowledge in highly specialized areas. Concentration has been on teaching techniques r a t h e r t h a n u n derstanding—on training rather t h a n education. " W h a t used to be a university," says D r . Swerdlow, "has become a school where conformity can win you a diploma b u t where you have to be a challenging individualist t o wdn a n education. An enforced curriculum relieves t h e student from t h e risks a t t e n d a n t upon seeking a p a t h for himself." T h e papers given a t t h e Symposium on Microscopical Scientists point out, in general, t h e need for inclusion of a t least an introduction to microscopy somewhere in t h e science student's curriculum. I n dustrial a n d research organizations arc badly in need of good microscopists. T h e best microscopists are creative scientists in their own right. Suitable professional recognition for microscopists, along with other scientists, is drawing increasing attention from management. Microscopy can be a n interesting and sometimes dramatic adjunct to a student's understanding of basic scientific principles. And it can be one of the scientist's or engineer's more powerful tools for the solution of problems. Nothing has been said here about the actual tools t h a t a microscopist has a t his disposal, or t h e w a y in which he can use these tools. D i s cussion of these phases will appear in a forthcoming R e p o r t for A n a lytical Chemists.
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