REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL
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W. WAYNE MEINKE Department o f Chemistry, University o f Michigan, A n n Arbor, M i c h .
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HIS article reviews the publications in nucleonics from 1953 to the present time. It follows, without overlapping, the material presented in the previous review (167). During the past 2 years, the scope of the field has enlarged tremendously. I n this country, the change in the Atomic Energy Act in 1954 caused a veritable explosion among industries as they sought to enter the atomic energy field. I n Europe, the Atomic Energy Research Establishment a t Harwell, England, as well as several other groups has continued to supply tracers in increasing quantities. Several general papers presented recently (1, I, 4, 134,I43,I51,379, @ I ) give excellent summaries of the important uses of radioisotopes in analysis in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Russia. I n reviewing publications of such a n extensive field, it is difficult to discuss every pertinent paper. It was felt, however, t h a t this type of review should emphasize the widespread use of radioisotopes in analysis today. An effort has therefore been made to include many references illustrating the use of activation, isotope dilution radioassay, and radiotracer methods in analysis. I t is hoped t h a t from such a compilation the analyst will discover uses for radioisotopes in his own work, realizing that this technique is not one that is still in the “curiosity” stage, but rather one that has already “arrived.” It was necessary to omit many worth-while papers because of limitations of time and space and the inaccessibility of certain journals. A number of papers dealing with techniques and measurements have also been omitted because they had already appeared in extensive bibliographies of summary papers. Many such summary papers, which were presented a t the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of A4tomicEnergy held at Geneva (399) in August 1955, are included in this review. The present paper gives the general references at the beginning of each section, followed by specific references to items of more limited application. I t has not been possible to cross index all the methods listed in the general papers. Therefore, under each major section, i t is important t h a t the general survey papers as well as the specific individual papers be read for a complete picture of progress in the field.
monthly for a subscription fee of $20 a year and report all the latest data in the literature, Since 1954 the data given in the quarterly and yearly accumulations of S u c l e a r Science Abstracts have been exact reproductions of the information on these cards, The Xational Research Council is in the process of compiling a new table of nuclear data starting with the elements between calcium and zirconium (2= 20 to 2 = 40). This compilation will report a best evaluated decay scheme and will also list half lives. The first of these new volumes should be out early in 1956, the remainder, in groups of 20 elements, following roughly a t 6- or 8-month intervals. Also available, but much less complete, are the isotope charts. The General Electric chart (150), available without cost, proves very helpful, although last revised in November 1952. More recent nuclide charts include that by Bradford (55) and the one
T a b l e I.
Radioisotopes Used in Analysis (217)
Twe of Decaya
Isotope
soss-
8888 - (89%)
Half Life 12.46 years 5568 years 1 5 . 0 6 hours 1 4 . 3 0 days 2 5 . 4 days 8 7 . 1 days 4 . 4 X 105 years 1 . 2 X 100 years
EC (11%)
sP-
EC EC
8-
sEC- (97.5%) 8+
ss-
( 2.5%)
P8-
sS-
1111
GENERAL
12.44 hours I52 27.8 2.94 45.1
days days years days
5 . 2 7 years 250 days
Energy of Radiation, h1.e.v. Gamma Particles transitions 0.0180 h‘o y 0 . 15.5 h-o y 1.39 1 . 3 7 , 275 1.701 No y 0.27 K O y 0 187 xo y 0.714 xo y 1.33 1.46 3 . 5 8 (75%) 2.04 (25%) 0.234 ,..
0 ’ 4 6 0 (-50%)
0 257 (-50%) 0 3OR 0.3%
1 , 8 l (25%)
No y 0 32 ( 8 % ) s o y
1.295, 1 , 0 9 7 1.3316, 1.1715 1,102
0.695 ... 0.61 so y 2.18 s o y 0.371 0.721 0.748 0 160 Several 0 . 0 8 7 (-58%) 0 . 5 3 0 (-35%) 2.12 ( -3970) 2.86 ( -3%) 8 141 days 0 608 (87.2%) 0 364 (80 9 % ) 0 335 ( 9 . 3 % ) 0 637 ( 9 . 3 % ) 0.250 [ 2 . 8 % ) 0 284 Others 0 080 Others 2 . 3 years 0 079 (21%) Several 0.235 ( 6%) 0.640 (54%) 0.676 (19%) 1 2 . 8 0 days 0 . 4 8 0 (30%) 0.162, 0.537, 1.022 (60%) 0.304 40.0 hours 1 . 3 2 (70%) 0.49,0.82,1.62 1 . 6 7 (20%) 2 . 2 6 (10%)
9.4 19.9 61 65 35 270
o-
years years hours days days days
I%:!
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NUCLEAR DATA
Before radioisotopes can be used in any way, their exact characteristics must be known. At present there are two important compilations of nuclear d a t a available. One, by Hollander, Perlman, and Seaborg (217),has the advantage t h a t a preferred half life and in many cases a preferred decay scheme are given on the basis of the authors’ evaluation of the original literature. Unfortunately, this table was last revised in December 1952. The second compilation is t h a t of Way and the group formerly a t the National Bureau of Standards and now a t the National Research Council, originally published as an NBS circular with three supplements (576). Subsequent data were published in Nuclear Science Abstracts (674) and cumulated yearly. The National Research Council group has also made available nuclear data cards (673) since 1954. These cards are sent out semi-
Cs‘3‘
s-
Pml47 8 ~ml7o8 -
2 . 6 years 129 days
AulQ8 0 ~1’04
8 - (-98%)
EC( -2%) EC. Electron capture.
736
2 . 6 9 days 3 . 5 years
0.223
No Y
0 . 9 6 8 (76%)
0.0841
0 . 8 8 4 (24%) 0.963 0.765
0.41177 No y
V O L U M E 2 8 , NO. 4, A P R I L 1 9 5 6 by Pool and Kundu (432),which is dated January 6, 1955. Disadvantages of using a chart of this type exclusively include the difficulty in keeping it completely up to date and the tendency to plan experiments on the basis of its limited description of modes of decay. These charts and tables contain nuclear data for more than 1000 radioactive nuclides, not more than 100 of which are of particular interest to the analyst. Various methods have been devised to increase the usefulness of the data, so that a person can sort out nuclides of particular characteristics by half life and particle energy. Two punched-card systems for radioisotopes (44, 320) have been suggested to help in this problem and one set of punched cards is available commercially (447). Hallden (187)has made a list of useful beta emitters by energy and half life and Lochett and Thomas (516) have re-evaluated the half lives of eleven radiotracers of particular interest. RADIO1 SOTOPE PRODUCTION
Most isotopes used in analysis are produced in nuclear reactors, although some are made in cyclotrons. Rupp (466, 467) has summarized the current information on the large scale production of radioisotopes. Bakker ( 1 9 )has also presented information on this subject, while Martin and others (354) have reviewed the problem of radioisotope production rate in a cyclotron. Three major sources of radioisotopes are the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the United States, the Chalk River Reactor in Canada, and the Atomic Energy Research Establishment in Harwell, England. The catalogs (11, 12, 401) of these laboratories should be consulted for the availability and cost of individual isotopes. I t is also possible to produce usable quantities of tracer activities in a laboratory with a portable neutron source using the Szilard-Chalmers method, Willard (581) has reviewed the basic chemical problems involved in nuclear transformations, while Murin and Nefedov (568) summarize the enrichment of radioactive elements by this recoil method, They include 151 references to the original literature and conclude t h a t a t present concentrated preparations of radioactive copper, gold, lead, phosphorus, vanadium, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, chromium, selenium, uranium, chlorine, manganese, bromine, iodine, iron, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, and platinum can be obtained by this method and t h a t this list will be considerably extended in the near future. Neutron fluxes suitable for this type of work are readily obtainable from portable antimony-beryllium sources (401)a t a much lower cost than radium-beryllium sources. REFERENCE MATERIAL
ils can be seen from the bibliography, references to applications of nucleonics in analysis are found in many widely separated journals, Nucleonics (383) has been particularly useful during the past 2 years in pointing out techniques of assay and measurement. I n ,%clear Science Abstracts (382)most of the innovations and research in this field have been abstracted. Unfortunately, the abstracts do not often include articles in which radioactive tracers have been essential to the development of analytical methods, unless the tracers are mentioned in the title or abstract of the article. The A n n u a l Review of Nuclear Science ( 7 ) summarizes recent developments in all fields of nuclear science. The quarterly pamphlet, Zsotopics (239),issued b y the Isotopes Division of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, carries up-to-date information on uses, cost, and safety considerations for radioisotopes. Recent issues of this pamphlet have carried lists of slide illustrations (241) and movies (242) available on loan from the Atomic Energy Commission. Information on the availability of AEC Reports is found in t h e introductory pages of each issue of Nuclear Science Abstracts (382).
737 The reports can be found in sonie 40 repositories in this country and in a number of repositories outside of this country aq part of international agreements. Many individual reports will soon also be available on microcards. A number of books have appeared in the field during the past 2 years. Several chapters in each of the general books by Friedlander and Kennedy (149),Whitehouse and Putman (679), and Francis, Rfulligan, and Wormall (146)are devoted to the use of radioactive tracers. Hughes’ book on pile neutron research (226) as well as books by Sacks (469), Hollaender (216), and Comar (85)devote some space to nucleonics as applied to analysis. Several other general books (6,56,153,194, 488,554) also present some information on this subject.
RADIOISOTOPES .AS SOURCES The uses of radioisotopes can be divided into two major classifications: those dependent upon the radioactivity as a source of ionizing radiation, and those dependent upon the tracer characteristics of radioactive material. The first of these classifications is considered here. Crompton ( 9 2 )has given an excellent revierv of the applications of radiation involving penetration or reflection, and other authors (388, 440) have reported numerous specific applications. .4 summary (175) comparing the different ?-ray emitters available for use as radioactive sources has been presented. The spectrum of energies available in portable sources can be extended to below 400 k.e.v. by various P-ray excited x-ray sources (449, 450). A portable thulium x-ray unit (565) has also been described. TRANSMISSION
Probably one of the first major uses of radioactivity in industry was the thickness gage. Putman (439)summarized developments in this field a t the Geneva Conference. Additional summary material on current industrial applications of thickness gages is also available (390, 593). These instruments utilize the fact t h a t nuclear radiations are attenuated to a predictable amount by a certain mass of material. Gages use strontium-90, a strong beta-emitting material, for many applications, or carbon-14, emitting a weak beta particle, for special thin requirements. Extension of this principle to gaging even thinner materials with the weak p r a y s of promethium-147 (528) or alpha particles (498) has been suggested. An extension of the same principle towards measurement of thicker materials has also been suggested-i.e., using x-rays to gage hot steel strips (535). Other thickness gages have been reported for specialized problems (190, 413) and approximate formulas for describing transmission and absorption of p-rays have been given (72,402). Several workers have explored the field of nuclear radiation absorptiometry, which promises numerous applications in the future. Nuclear radiations, whether alpha, beta, or gamma, are slowed down in different n-ays by ionization, scattering, etc., but for each there is a definite dependence upon the atomic number of the elements in the absorbing material. Thus, by proper calibration, it is possible to determine the composition of certain simple mixtures of solids or liquids or gases. While publications in this field are covered more fully in other reviews, several examples are discussed below. Leboeuf, Miller, and Connally (297)a t Hanford have described the use of gamma radiation in absorptiometry. These methods have also found considerable use in the oil industry, where Cranston, Matthecw, and Evans (91)have used x-ray absorption for the rapid determination cf sulfur in hydrocarbons. Hughes and Wilczem ski (224) have made the same type of determination for sulfur in the range 0.05 to 2.7%, using the x-rays from the orbital electron capture of iron-55.
738
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Jacobs and Le& (243)have developed a method for determination of the percentage of hydrogen in liquid hydrocarbon by simultaneously measuring the density and the absorption of Sr80YQOp-rays of a sample. T h e weight percentage can be read from a calibration curve and small corrections can be made for the presence of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, lead, etc. They report measurements can be made in 5 minutes, with a probable error of 0.02 weight 70 hydrogen. A4pparatusof this type is commercially available from the Central Scientific Co., Chicago, and Hallikainen Instruments, Berkeley, Calif. Smith and Otvos (510) discriss in detail a n instrument and procedure for the same type of problem. They report determination of the weight per cent of hydrogen with a n absolute accuracy of *O.l%. Applications of the instrument to density measurements are also described. Deiqler, McHenry, and Wilhelm (108) have applied the same principle, using the ionization of alpha particles from a polonium source, in analyzing binary and ternarv gas mixtures. They report a precision within 0.2 to 0.3 mole % f o r binary mixtures. This principle has even been used in a new type of fire alarm system by Pyrene (Y?'), utilizing a small radium source. Whenever smoke or any gas of composition other than air enters thc detector chamber, the sharp drop in ionization current c a u ~ e s. ~ n alarm to be given. BACK-SCATTERING
.4 second category of measurements is based on the backscattering of radiation from matter. It has been k n o u n for a long time t h a t the back-scattering of beta particles from a surface shows a marked dependence upon atomic number. Muller (364, 366) has observed, however, what appears to be a perfectly general relationship between the back-scattering of beta particles from matter and its composition. He has shown for 32 elements and some 40 compounds t h a t the back-scattering of beta particle6 is a discontinuous function of the atomic number, with linearity within each period of the periodic system. Unfortunately, only a portion of Muller's work has been published to date, but the remainder should appear soon. Hine and McCall ( 2 1 5 ) have studied the back-scattering of gamma-rays as a function of the energy of the primary gamma radiation and the material of the back-scatterer. Another report (441) describes the use of the back-scattering of weak thulinm1 i 0 y-rays in sorting coal from shale. MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS
Several other reports have mentioned novel applications or interferences of radiation with standard analytical techniques. Pannell (412) discussed the effect of highly radioactive solutions on glass p H electrodes, while Dewar and Hentz (111) described the potentiometric determination of iron b y x-ray oxidation. A microcalorimeter has been calibrated (42)by use of a radioactive substance having a constant heat output and the Bureau of Standards describes (329) a radiation balance for the microcalorimetric comparison of four radium standards. Maton (335) has discussed the calorimetric estimation of alpha emitters.
RADIOISOTOPES A S TRACERS Most of the interest in radioisotopes for analytical chemistry research today involves their use as tracers. T h e applications cover a spectrum of methods ranging from the determination of minute amounts of isotopes by activation with nuclear particles, to analysis by isotope dilution, the assay and separation of radioactive materials, and the use of radioisotopes as tracerq in evaluating or developing analytical procedures. T h e term radiometric analysis is given a limited definition in this paper and indicates procedures by tracer methods for elements which are not
themselves radioactive. I t is not used to refer to any and all procedures using tracers, as is commonly done in some of the literature today. ACTIVATIOS Ah-ALYSIS
Activation an:dysis remains perhaps the most spectacular of the applications of nucleonics to analytical chemistry, because of the high sensitivity obtainable in certain optimum caws. Neutron reactions still account for the bulk of the methods, although a few charged particle and photon activations are reported. Two excellent discussions on the present status of activation analysis n.ere given at the Geneva Conference by Smales (605) of the United Kingdom and Jakovlev (244) of Russia. Each author cites examples from his own recent and rinpiililished n.orlc. Several other general review-type articles (60,61, 806, 299, 300, 503) discws advantages and disadvantages of this n:ethotl of analysis. Plumb and Lewis (.$%)discuss a number of I)ossil,le errors which can occur in activation analysis. They point out that for accuracy as well as precision one must watch out for errors i n activity measurement, incomplete chemical separation, ratlioactive contamination in carrier, errors in actiyation due to competing transmutations, flux inhomogeneities, :rnd $elf-absorption. However, proper techniques can reduce or overcome these sources of error, just as similar problems h:ive been niinin,izcd in spectroscopy. Because activation analysis utilizes the nuclear characteristics of isotopes, thew i. iio correlation between the atomic grouping of elements and their .Guitability to analysis by this method. Moreover, it is unfair to expect activation analysis to determine a number of elements simult,aneously TTith high sensitivity. Instead, its prime importance appears to be in determining certain trace elements n.hic*hpresent difficulties for other analytical techniques. Sources of Neutrons. Several articles (220, 221, 38YJ 396) describe reactor facilities, both existing and planned, which ' could be used as a source of neutrons for activation anal! Others have reported the use of small portable radium-beryllium (341) and polonium-beryllium (338) sources for specialized problems of this sort. Hurrill and Gale ( 6 8 ) desmibe the use of the van de Graaff generator with tritium or ber!.llium target8 to produce neutrons for activation analysis and present a table listing sensitivities attainable with these sonrces. Jarrett and Berger (246) describe the use of verv low power reactors with fluxes of about 4 X lo7 neutrons per sq. em. per second for the production of isotopes and for analysis. I n activation analysis, as in many other analytical methods, most results are compared with standards, as relatively large errors may arise in the absolute determination of particle flnx: counting geometry and efficiency, etc. If the absolute neutron reaction yield (cross section) is required, there is available a nencompilation (283) of these values for both thermal and higher energy neutrons. Problems of time and flux perturbation arising in neutron irradiation have been treated by Lewis (310, 311). Sensitivity. The high sensitivity inherent in activation determination of certain slements is certainly its major attraction. An attempt has been made by Meinke (340)to cornparc the sensitivities obtainable by thi3 method with thoee available from certain other standard techniques. He compared the reported eensitivity values of Leddicotte and Reynolds (300) with values reported in the literature for arc and spark spectroscopy, flame spectrometry, colorimetry, and amperometry. Although this comparison gives only order of magnitude values, it can be useful as a starting point in assaying the value of activation analysis for a particular problem. General tables of sensitivity values for this method (68, 206, 244, 300, 505) and values reported for specific isotopes may vary considerahly, for the most part because of differences in
739
V O L U M E 28, NO. 4, A P R I L 1 9 5 6 techniques. Some of the reported sensitivities are based, honever, entirely upon calculations. As some writers neglect t o include considerations of detection efficienciesin their calculations, the reader is advised t o place more faith in sensitivities lyhich have been experimentally determined. Analysis Schemes. Schemes to determine a whole set of impurities by activation analysis have been developed by a number of groups. Morrison and Cosgrove (560, 361) used scintillation spectrometry t o minimize the chemical separations required in determining six different impurities in silicon used in transistors. Atchison and Beamer (10) describe in detail their techniques for det,ermining nine trace impurities in magnesium. Smales (504) includes detailed separation procedures for determining trace impurities in liquid metal coolants. Other schemes iiiclude the determination of trace elements in sea water ( 2 7 ) , reactor cooling water (321), and biological material (186). Deuterium, Lithium, Beryllium, and Boron. A niettod of measuring deuterium using the ( r , n ) reaction was reported (132). A 1-curie source of sodium-24 permits measurement of a 25-1111. sample of 0.1% deuterium oxide in a 25-ml. sample to & 2 % in about 12 minutes (including time for counting background). Several groups have t’aken advantage of the large thermal neutron cross section of the ( n , a ) reaction on lithium-6 to give tritium. Iiaplan and Wilzbach (259) find that they can determine lithium to within a precision of &1%, the only significant interference being lithium impurities in the quartz irradiation tubes. Other authors report the determination of lithium in minerals (426)and salts (207) by neutron bombardment and w e of a nuclear emulsion to detect the reaction products. Beryllium has been determined by the Be9(w,n7)C1* reaction by Odeblad and Nati (403), although boron, aluminum, magnesium, and certain other elements interfere. Boron was detected (339) in tissues by the B10(n,a)Li7 reaction and subsequent autoradiography of the irradiated tissue. Nitrogen and Oxygen. Siie (530) has continued his previous work on activation with charged particles and reports the determination of nitrogen by the ( d , n ) reaction on nitrogen-14 to give the 2-minute oxygen-15 isotope. He has detected a few micrograms of nitrogen in a metal to within +20yo. The 1.1-minute fluorine-17 is an interference. T w o different activation techniques have been used for the determination of osygen. 13asile and others ( 2 8 )used the ( y , n ) reaction with a h e h t r o n to produce the 2-minute oxygen-15, and report a sensitivity as low as 0.1% oxygen in aluminum for this method. T h e authors report that this nondestructive method can be extended to carbon and nitrogen in organic compounds giving t,he 20-minute carbon-1 1 and 10-minute nitrogen-13, respectively. Osniond and Sniales (410) utilized the secondary tritium particles obtained from a neutron bombardment of lithium fluoride to activate oxygen, giving radioactive fluorine-18. They report analyses of samples containing a fraction of 1% of osygen, to a precision within & l o % , but point out that results :Lre somewhat dependent upon the complete and reproducible intermising of the lithium fluoride and sample material. Sodium, Phosphorus, and Chlorine. Plumb and Silverman (431)report a precision of better than 170and a limiting accuracy of O . O O O l ~ oin the range of 0.01 to 0.04yo for sodium in aluminum alloys. Leddicotte and Reynolds (501) have also discussed the determination of the alkali metals by this mcthod, while Smalcs and Loveridge (506) report the determination of sodium in pure lithium metal down to 0.02 p.p.m. Pauly ( 4 1 6 ) describes the estimation of sodium in potassium nitrate by this method. Schmeiser and Jerchel (485)used cyclotron bombardment to determine phosphorus in paper electrophorogranis b y an (n,p) r e a h o n giving silicon-31. Decay measurements discriminate against interfering activities. Foster and Gaitanis (143) determined phosphorus in aluminum and aluminum oxide by activation to phosphoriis-32. Phosphorus contents of 0.001 to 0.0001%
were determined to +5% and a practical sensitivity of 5 X lo-;% is report,ed possible. hnother group ( 2 2 ) reports the determination of chlorine in luminescent zinc sulfide crystals t o a limit of 5 X 10-B gram per gram of zinc sulfide with a precision within +lo%. This, they say, is five times better than the precision of the same determination by a nephelometric method. Argon, Cobalt, Nickel, and Copper. hnother group (355) has applied neutron activation to potassium mineral dating. I t determines the argon40 content of potassium minerals by activation to the radioactive argon-41 and reports measurement of as little as 3 X 10-8 gram of argon-40. I t also cites the possibility of using the ( n , a )reaction on radiogenic calcium-40 to give radioactive argon-37 in these studies. Smales and Wiseman (508) describe analyses of deep-sea sediments for cobalt, nickel, and copper by this method. Szekely (536) determined traces of copper in germanium and reports a sensitivity of 10-4 y . A chemical separation of the copper was required. Copper has also been determined in cellulose esters (434) by activation analysis. Arsenic, Technetium, and Silver. Arsenic has been determined in silicon (245) by James and Richards with a chemical yield of 80 t o 90% and a sensitivity of 0.0003 p.p.m. on a 1-gram sample. Alperovitch and Miller (392) used activation analysis of ores in looking for technetium-98 in nature. Berlman ( 3 3 ) developed a technique for the determination of film esposure by activation of silver. Barium, Strontium, Cesium, and Rubidium. The estimation of trace amounts of barium or strontium in biological materials can be determined by activation, with no interference from a large excess of calcium (197). When chemical separations are used, a precision within &5% and a sensitivity of 1 to 50 y is obtained for either element. Smales and Salmon (507) present an excellent discussion of the determination of small amounts of rubidium and cesium in sea water and related materials of geochemical interest. T h e method and applications are described in detail. Sensitivitiep of 10-5 to 10-8 gram are reported for both elements. Rare Earths and Tantalum. Phillips and Cornish ( 4 2 4 ) discuss the determination of dysprosium in “spec pure” holmium oxide. S o chemical separations were made, but aqueous dilutions led t o values of 11.71 i: 0.09% by liquid counting and 11.66 & 0.16% by solid counting. A comparison (342)of activation analysis n i t h spectrophotometric procedures has been made for several rare earth elements of high cross section. Several authors (38, 278, 350) discuss the analysis for tantalum in niobium ores and in stainless steels by this method. Thorium and Uranium. Jenkins ( 2 4 7 ) describes in detail a procedure for the determination of small quantities of thorium by the activation method and compares it with methods using thorium tracer or detecting the natural activities. Leddicotte and hfahlman (298) also discussed this determination in their Geneva paper. A method for the determination of uranium-235 in a mixture of naturally occurring uraniiini isotopes has been reported (495, 496) t o give a precision within &0.44’%. Two other excellent papers (525, 502) discuss in detail the determination of very small amounts of uranium in rocks and minerals, while a third paper (526)descrilm the determination of uranium in sea water. I n this ingenious procedure, uranium was first extracted with dibutyl hydrogen phosphate in carbon tetrachloride and evaporated to dryness. The residue was then subjected to a neiitron flux, and fissions of uranium335 a e r e counted. NEUTRON ABSORPTIOMETRY
I t is possible to utilize the absorption of neutrons for analysis just as the absorption of light, etc., is used in other methods.
740 Little activity has occurred in this field during the paqt 2 years, possibly because of the lack of good monoencrgvtic neutron sources a t different energies. Further work on t h e method of boron determination has been reported (188) using a poloniumberyllium neutron source. By this method 0.1% boron in solution can be determined with a precision within &3%. ISOTOPE DILUTION
This method is of particular importance in analyzing complicated inorganic or organic mixtures or residues where quantitative separation of the desired material is difficult, time-consuming, or impossible. A measured amount of the pure constituent of known specific activity (counts per minute per gram) is added to the unknown mixture in solution. After thorough mixing to ensure equilibrium, a pure sample of the desired constituent is separated and counted. By comparing the new specific activity with the specific activity of the pure constituent added, it is possible to determine the amount of t h a t material in the mixture, I n effect, the radioactive materials are measuring the yield of the separation procedure. Potentially this is a powerful tool for the analyst. While the separation need not be quantitative, it must give a pure sample, nor may there be any isotopic exchange to reduce the specific activity of the labeled material. YOWthat so many organic compounds labeled n-ith carbon-14 and tritium are available (240, 378), the method should find even wider applicability. Pinajian and coworkers (429) have given an excellent review of the history of this method and list 78 references to the original literature in a survey of the field. Christian and Pinajian ( 7 9 ) describe three procedures of analysis-the direct isotope dilution analysis, the inverse isotope dilution analysis, and the double isotope dilution analysis-and discuss the limitations of each. Equations used in the calculations for each of these methods are given. Quimby, Rlabis, and Lampe (442)describe in detail their use of phosphorus-32 to determine pyrophosphate and triphosphate in the presence of other phosphates. They report no systematic bias in the analysis for pyrophosphate and a maximum of . t 2 % for the triphosphate; standard deviations of & l % for the NaaPzO? and 1.5% for the NaSP301(were obtained. Haywood (203) has also discussed the application of this method to the determination of condensed inorganic phosphates. Ikeda and Kanbara (939)used this technique in determining elementary sulfur in acetone extracts of vulcanized rubber, while Tarasova, Kaplunov, and Dogadkin (538) used sulfur-35 for the study and control of the vulcanization process. Ashton and Foster ( 9 )determined benzylpenicillin in fermentation liquors using the carbon-14-labeled form. By paying considerable attention to detail they were able to obtain a standard error of .tl%. Their method is based upon the determination of a phenylacetyl grouping and thus is complicated by the presence of other phenylacetyl derivatives in the sample. Gordon and coworkers (171) have developed an assay method for penicillins in broth using sulfur-35-labeled penicillin. No degradation of the penicillin is required and penicilloic acid does not interfere. They report an error of &5.9% at the 95% confidence level for their determinations. A determination of the gamma isomer in crude benzene hexachloride by the use of carbon-14-tagged material was reported by Hill and associates (213). They used a methane proportional flow counter and thick barium carbonate samples to give reproducibilities within &30J0. Craig, Tryon, and Brown (90) made the same type of analysis using chlorine-36, resulting in a standard deviation of &0.2% in gamma isomer content for samples containing from 1 to 50% of the isomer. Sorensen (514) reports the determination of hydroxy and amino compounds by a chlorine-36 isotope dilution method, in which the compound to be analyzed is first quantitatively con-
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY verted to a chlorine-containing derivative. He also uses (513) chlorine-36 to determine 2,4-D and other weed killers of agricultural interest. Sowden and Spriggs (516) describe determination of n-glucose and gentiobiose in “hydrol” using carbon-14-labeled sugars. Burtle and Ryan (69) used carbon-14 in an isotope dilution procedure to detect small amounts of diethyl ether in large amounts of ester. It is reported (391)that the Hercules Powder Co. uses isotopic dilution in analysis of pentaerythritol. I t is possible to assay for vitamin B12 in complex mixtures ranging from fermentation products to vitamin capsules by isotope dilution using the vitamin labeled with radioactive cobalt-60. Bacher, Boley, and Shonk ( 1 6 ) report for this method a standard deviation of .t4.3% for samples having as low a concentration as 0.1 y per ml. and a total weight of 0.1 my. Sumerof, Sassaman, Rodgers, and Schaefer (400)describe a procedure for the assay of vitamin D using radioactive phosphorus. Reineke (451) used radioactive iodine to determine the thyroxine content of thyroactive iodinated proteins by isotope dilution. A value was obtained that was one third as large as t h a t indicated by the unreliable 1-butanol extraction procedure. Municio (367) has compared isotope dilution with other methods used in the quantitative determination of amino acids by paper chromatography. RADIOMETRIC ANALYSIS
This method of analysis has remained of only passing interest to date. Many who explored its uses developed methods a hich had few of the advantages and some of the disadvantages of methods already in existence. A few definite contributions have been made during the past 2 years, however. Determinations of phosphorus and arsenic (as phosphate and arsenate) by precipitation with radioactive silver as Ag2TlP04 and Ag,TlAsO( have been studied (173). The determination of small amounts of thallium by precipitation of the thallium with hexamine cobaltic trichloride labeled with cobalt-60 is also reported (2%). Two groups (238,493)independently report the determination of microgram amounts of potassium with cobaltinitrite labeled with cobalt-60. An ingenious method for the quantitative paper chromatography of traces of metals was reported by van Erkelens (561). The paper chromatogram was exposed to hydrogen sulfide labeled with sulfur-35. The method shows considerable promise, because it can be applied to biological materials, is cheap, and is reported to have a sensitivity comparable to that of spectrography. Schayer and coworkers (481)have determined histamine over a wide range of concentration by converting it to an iodine131-labeled “pipsyl chloride.” They report the reaction is very specific for histamine, with no known tissue constituents interfering. ASSAY OF RADIOISOTOPES
I n any experiment utilizing the tracer potentialities of radioactive materials it is necessary to have techniques available t o assay the amount of radioactivity in the end products. Assay methods including both sample preparation and measurement techniques are described in this section. References dealing only with radiochemical separations appear in a later section. The problems of gross radioassay of such diverse items a s industrial wastes (208,494),excretions (SWd), and fish tissue (289) have been discussed in detail, and an elaborate report has been written (394) on the analysis of the radioactive dust t h a t fell on the Japanese fishing boat after the nuclear detonation in the Pacific. Several new assay techniques and pieces of equipment for sample preparation have been reported (198,465,489). I n many laboratories the Geiger counter is gradually giving way to the proportional and scintillation counter for assay work. Nevertheless, a number of articles, a t least a dozen in X’ucleonics
V O L U M E 2 8 , NO. 4, A P R I L 1 9 5 6 (383) alone, have discussed the characteristics of Geiger counters (499). Discussion of the scintillation counter and spectrometer is reserved for a later section. Tritium. -4lthough this isotope has found considerable use in tracer studies, its low energy has deterred many because of the self-absorption inherent in its measurement. General problems of tritium research were described by Brom-n and coworkers ( 6 3 ) in their paper a t the Geneva conference. Other general references include a book by Glascock (160)and a detailed review and bibliography of tritium techniques and applications by Thompson (545). Johnston (250) presents an excellent discussion of problems in low-level counting and the future of isotopic tracers. His bibliography gives 57 references to pertinent material. Jenkins (248)uses a windowless flow counter and bases his method for estimating tritium content on measuring the activity of solid ammonium chloride made radioactive by exchange with tritiated water. The method is rapid but is limited at present t o an accuracy nithin +15%. Wing and Johnston (586) report a reproducible method whereby tritiated water is converted to acetylene with calcium carbide and the acetylene determined by Geiger counting. Libby (312)describes the development of sensitive radiation aetection techniques for tritium, and Beischer ( 3 0 ) discusses the ,zbqolute beta measurement of tritium mono-layers. I n tritium assay, as in any radioactivity assay, there are two niajor prohlems: to obtain the radioactive material from the sample in a usahle form and to count the material under optimum conditions. Three different methods are suggested for the preparation of gas for assay of tritium in organic compounds. Viallard and others (564) use a semimicro combustion train and report a high sensitivity for an analysis requiring only 0.01 to 0.02 gram of sample. Payne and Done (417) use a combustion bomb method for the preparation of the gas, while Wilzbach, Kaplan, and Brown (583)report using a zinc fusion method. T o counteract the self-absorption of the weak tritium beta particles, Hayes and Gould (201) have counted tritium-labeled water and organic compounds with liquid scintillators, while Wilzbach, Van Dyken, and Kaplan (585) and Wilson (582) dewribe the use of ionization chambers for the measurement. llcClelland and others (322)describe in detail a procedure for the tritium away of urine and water. Carbon-14. More references t o this radioisotope appear in the chemical literature than to any other because of its usefulness in tracing organic reactions. I n the assay of organic samples, two methods of decomposition have been used, wet combustion and dry combustion. I n his Fisher Award Lecture Van Slyke (562) has given an excellent review of 77-et carbon combustion and its applications. Other papers (17, 36, 261, 266, 421, 576) report modifications in the basic net-combustion technique. Burr ( 6 6 ) sweeps the carbon dioxide formed in the wet combustion directly into an ion chamber for measurement. An electric heater has been designed for the Van Slyke combustion apparatus (189). Collins and Itopp ( 8 4 ) studied the accuracy obtainable from the Van Slyke wet combustion and radioassay of carbon-14-labeled compounds using an ion chamber and a vibrating reed electrometer. By carefully controlling conditions, they found the relative specific activity of a carbon-14 compound could be measured to within about &0.5%. Cse of a high frequency induction furnace in the determination of radiocarbon is reported (157)to be fast and reliable. Rilzbach and Sykes (584)describe a simplified dry-combustion technique in which organic compounds are heated in a tube with copper oxide. The procedure is similar t o the zinc fusion technique for tritium. Of probable interest t o many is a method providing for the simultaneous determination of total carbon and carbon-14 activity in compounds for which wet-combustion procedures for total carbon are not adequate (154). ,4number of articles have been written on three of the instrunients used for the measurement of carbon-14: the ionization
74 1 chamber, the proportional counter, and the liquid scintillation counter. Brownell and Lockhart ( 6 4 ) describe in detail the procedures required for precise ionization chamber measurements. Raaen and Ropp (444) report a precision within &0.3% a t the 95% confidence level for the radioassay of benzoic acids, using a Van Slyke wet combustion in conjunction a-ith a n ionization chamber and a vibrating reed electrometer, if all operations are performed in one day. Baker, Tolbert, and RIarcus ( 1 6 ) have assayed breath carbon-14 in ionization chambers. Several groups describe (58, 484)techniques for using proportional counters for assav of radiocarbon. Karnovsky and others (260) compare activities of several organic compounds counted as such or as barium carbonate aftei combustion. They found that the relevant correction factors were much smaller in a flow proportional counter than corresponding factors reported in the literature for end-window Geiger counters. Other articles also discuss this self-absorption correction (166) and methods for obtaining evenly distributed counting plates ( 6 7 ) . Henson (204) eliminates the self-absorption problem by counting carbon-14 as gaseous carbon dioxide in a special Geiger counter. T h e liquid scintillation counting of natural radiocarbon was described in detail by Hayes, h n d e r ~ o n ,and Arnold (199) in their paper a t the Genera conference. Twenty-five pertinent references to the current literature are given. TKOother groups (13, 114) also have published papers on the use of liquid scintillators in carbon-14 research. An interesting aspect of carbon-14 work that is equally applicable to work with other radioisotopes is the self-radiolysis and decomposition of carbon-14 compounds upon standing. Two groups (308, 566) have studied this effect. Tolbert, Garden, and Adam8 describe (646) certain special handling equipment used for carbon-14 work. Phosphorus-32. Hahn and Anderson (180) discuss radiochemical methods for the determination of this isotope. Loevinger and Feitelberg (318) assay phosphorus-32 with a well-type scintillation counter by counting the bremsstrahlen resulting from absorption of the beta rays in the crystal mounting. Dawson (103)measures radiophosphorus in small samples of tissue. T h e sample is digested and subjected to two-dimensional chromatography and the active spots are eluted from the paper and counted. One problem inherent in work n i t h phosphorus-32 is the presence in the stock solution of small amounts of the weak betaemitting phosphorus-33 resulting from second-order neutron capture. Present techniques assay the phosphorus solution for phosphorus-33 by differential absorption curves or spectrometry, but RIayr (337)reports the use of nuclear emulsions 200 microns thick to determine this ratio. The emulsion includes almost all the tracks of phosphorus-33 while recording only a small portion of the tracks of phosphorus-32. Rosen and Davis (460) describe the absolute beta counting of gases containing phosphorus-32 with an end-window Geiger counter. Sulfur-35 and Chlorine-36. Two papers (231, 343) include methods for the quantitative determination of sulfur-35 in complex organic mixtures. Self-absorption corrections (343) are reported for a number of sulfur-containing mixtures. A simple technique for counting milligram samples of protein labeled with carbon-14 or sulfur-35 has been published (156), as well as a procedure for digestion and radioassay of animal tissues containing sulfur-35 (76). Walser, Reid, and Seldin (569) have counted radiosulfur in liquid samples by a method that has special application t o the determination of sulfur-35 in excretions following a n injection of labeled sulfate. Sorensen (516) used four different organic compounds t o investigate the reproducibility of mounting solid samples of chlorine-36 compounds for radioactivity measurement. Kahn and coworkers (255) describe assay procedures suitable for chlorine-36 and report t h a t both mercurous and silver chlorides are suitable precipitates for counting. The advantages of solid versus liquid counting are discussed.
742 Sodium-24, Potassium-40,42, and Calcium-45. Suttle and Libby (632) discuss the application of the absolute assay of beta radioactivity in thick samples to the determination of potassium in naturally radioactive potassium salts. Dresia (120) uses a Geiger counter to determine potassium in solution with a precision of zk2-370 at a lower concentration limit of 20 mg. per ml. With a special Geiger counter, Scheel (482) rapidly determines potassium and potassium salts M ith an accuracy comparable to the normal gravimetric method. T h e procedure is adaptable to use in the laboratory or a mine. I n the biological field, Orvis and Albert (406)have been successful in the bioassay of solutions of aldosterone and related steroids by gamma counting of sodium24 and potassium-42. A special technique for determining the specific activity of calcium45 by use of a collapsible centrifuge tube has been developed (172). Chromium-51, Iron-55,59, Cobalt-60, and Zinc-65. Several authors (78, 273, 422, 448) have recorded methods for assaying the isotopes of iron in biological material. Two groups (448, 627) have assayed iron-55 and iron-59 simultaneously in mixed preparations. Cheong and coworkers (78) discuss problems of assay of iron45 in multiple tracer studies with high activities of silver110, while Lough and Hertsch (319) describe procedures for estimating the composition of iron-59-chromium-51 mixtures. Ballentine and Burford (21) discuss in detail the radiochemical assay of cobalt-60 in biological materials. In their procedure, which has given a standard deviation of 3 ~ 3 %in over a thousand determinations, samples are wet-ashed, separated as cobaltic hydrouide, electroplated as cobalt metal from a fluoborate buffer, and counted in a special flow proportional counter. Banks and coworkers (23, 24) determine zinc-65 in biological tissues with Geiger and scintillation counting techniques. Wet combustion, extraction with dithizone, or homogenization has been used to prepare the sample for counting. Krypton-85, Zirconium-95, and Silver-I 10. Reynolds (452) reports techniques for counting radiokrypton, giving detailed diagrams of vacuum line handling and counter system, v, hile Busey ( 7 0 ) describes a system of volumetric microanalysis for reactor off-gases. Hahn and Skonieczny (182) have determined 1adioactive zirconium in fission products, using mandelic acid to precipitate zirconium carrier. Cheong, Perri, and Sharpe (78) assay radiosilver in biological samples by scintillation counting techniques. Iodine-I31 and Astatine-211. Weisburger and Lipner (676) have carefully evaluated the different counting systems available for the laboratory determination of iodine-131. They conclude that the aindowless counter is about equal in efficiency to the scintillation well counter, but that ease of preparation heavily favors the well counter. Brown and Jackson ( 6 2 ) describe a technique for the estimation of the radioactive components of plasma after the administration of iodine-131. Durbin, Hamilton, and Parrott (123) have developed a procedure for the codetermination of iodine-131 and astatine-21 1 in tissue by digesting with chromic acid, reducing with oxalic acid and distilling. Cesium-134, Strontium-90, Barium-140, and Gold-198. Hahn and Backer (181) determined radioactive cesium in fission products by precipitation with dipicrylamine or periodic acid. Determination of radioactive strontium and barium in water has also been recorded (183) with sensitivities o f about 4 X 10-8 and 10-7 pc. per ml., respectively, and a precision of about 10%. Weiss, Steers, and Bollinger (677) report a novel technique for the determination of radioactive gold in large amounts of biological tissue, which depends upon the recovery of the gold from hydrolyzed tissue with activated charcoal. Solutions of from 0.2 to 1000 pc. of gold-198 gave 96 to 107% recovery. Polonium-210, Emanation, and Actinium-227. Scott and Stannsrd (487) investigated wet and dry oxidation procedures for polonium-210 in biological materials. This same isotope is
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY rapidly determined (922, 466) in urine by electrochemical deposition on a nickel disk from acid solution with a yield of around 98%. Element-86 (emanation, radon, thoron, etc.) hap been determined in mineral waters (291, 292), in the air (192, 549), in breath (226), and in food (497). A scintillation counter for the assay of radon gas has been described (569). -4 procedure for the separation of actinium and its daughters by means of lead sulfate from urine solutions has been reconimended (459). Radium, Thorium, and Uranium. Wamser and others (521) have perfected a rapid preparation for radioassay of residues containing radium. Kirby (268) discusses the determination of radium by alpha counting. Three papers (254,427, 433) discuss procedures for the determination of ionium (thorium-230) and other thorium isotopes in sea sediments, while other references (5, 94) describe methods for the determination of mesothorium in thorium-containing materials. Rosholt (462)presents a quantitative method for the determination of the major sources of natural radioactivity in ores and minerale. There has been a great deal of interest in the determination of uranium and its daughters in radioactive ores and solutions (37, 59, l26,147,280,4ll,467,629,653). One group reports (580)an electrodeposition method for the determination of uranium in urine. ,4 radiochemical method for the determination of uranium-235 in uranium is also described (106). SEPARATION AND PREPAR4TIOh OF RADIOISOTOPES
These papers differ from those in the previous section in that their primary objective is the separation of one radioactive material from other radioactive materials. Several new compilations of radiochemical procedures have become available during the past 2 years. T h e compilation collected ( 2 7 4 ) and revised (2275) by Kleinberg and others describes radiocheniical procedures used a t Los Blamos; that by Lindner ( 3 l 4 ) ,20 procedures used a t the University of California Radiation Laboratory (Livermore); and that by Finston (137), a dozen or more piocedures submitted to the clearinghouse supported by the Satiorial Research Council. Each of the above procedures is described In detail. Kahn (Q53)has given limited distribution to an extensive compilation abstracting unclassified radiochemical methods for most of the elements. Other general descriptions and summaries of radiochemical procedures can be found in the articles in Annual Retzew of S u c l e a r Scamce by Stevenson and Hicks (624) on separation techniques used in radiochemistry (with 140 references), Glendenin and Steinberg (162) on fission radiochemistry (with 62 references), and Finston and Miskel (138) on assorted radiochemical procedures. Bruce ( 6 6 ) has summarized the solvent extraction chemistry of the fission products, while several other articles (74, 479, 491) discuss the separation of several radioisotopes from one particular material. The carrier-free separation of a number of isotopes is also described (302,476). Cathers ( 7 6 )has discussed problems of radiation damage to radiochemical processing reagents. Hydrogen to Zinc. A separation of mixtures of tritium and hydrogen is discussed (122). Mellet, Daudel, and Muxart (944) report the microchemical preparation of beryllium-7, while other authors (46, 293) describe separation procedures for organic compounds labeled with carbon-14. Bernstein and Kntz ( 3 4 )give detailed description of the preparation and properties of fluorine-18. Arrol ( 8 ) describes the apparatus required for large scale production of phosphorus-32, and another paper (475) recommends the carrier-free extraction of this same isotope into boiling water from pile-irradiated sulfur. Separation of carrier-free scandium from a calcium target is reported b y Duval and Kurbatov (124). T h e scandium is adsorbed on filter paper while the more concentrated calcium is unaffected.
V O L U M E 28, N O . 4, A P R I L 1 9 5 6 Ilarbottle and Maddock (191) have prepared chromium-51 of high specific activity by the Szilard-Chalmers reaction on potassium dichromate. Dick and Kurbatov (112) describe a carrier-free separation of cobalt-56, -57, -58 from a manganese target by extraction of the cobalt with 1-nitroso-2-naphthol. Mahlman, Leddicotte, and Moore (326) separate cobalt b y methyl dioctylamine extraction. T h e carrier-free separation of zinc from cyclotron-irradiated copper by elution from a cellulose column with a 1-butanol-hydrochloric acid mixture is reported by Tupper and Watts (550). Arsenic to Silver. Green and Kafalas ( 1 7 6 )report the preparation of carrier-free arsenic-74 from a germanium cyclotron target by extraction with benzene from a concentrated hydrochloric. acid solution. Laurent and Simonnin (296) prepare arsenic-T6 by the Szilard-Chalmers reaction on cacodylic acid. llizzan (552) uses yttrium hydroxide scavenging and oxalate precipitation t o determine strontium in fission products, while Wray (591) discusses a method for control of strontium-90 purification by cation exchange. Turk (551) introduces a modifieti strontium procedure involving several iron hydroxide scavenges and precipitation as the carbonate. Salutsky and Kirby (472)obtain a continuous supply of carrier-free yttrium-90 by a rapid method involving precipitation of the strontium-90 pirent as the nitrate. ?*fizzan (553) reports an improved procedure for yttrium in long-lived fission product solutions. Moore (556) separates niobium from protactinium by liquidliquid extraction into diisobutylcarbinol from dilute hydrofluoricsulfuric acid solution. T h e separation by ion exchange of technetium from other materials in a neutron bombardment of molybdenum has been reported by Hall and Johns (186). Two other studies on the isolation of technetium have also appeared (351, 648), the latter using extraction of tetraphenylarsoniuni pertectnate into chloroform. A new type of procedure for the isolation of radioactive silver has been reported by Sunderman and RIeinke ( 5 3 1 ) . This method depends upon the rapid isotopic exchange between silvei. ion in solution and a silver chloride precipitate. Quantitative yields can be obtained in a few minutes with high decontaniinations from most elements. Rouser and Ilahn (464) outline a method for the separation of the radioactivities of silver and palladium, and Griess and Rogers ( 1 7 7 ) describe a procedure for the selective electrodeposition of silver from a solution of palladium. Tin to Thallium. Tin, antimony, -and tellurium have been separated by anion exchange (509). The widespread use of iodine in medical tracer and therapeutic work is evidenced by the number of reports of separations for both iodine-131 and -132. The separation of iodine-131 from tellurium dioxide by dry distillation (475, 559, 540) and the production of iodine-132 (519) have been reported in detail. -4radiochemical iodine procedure involving distillation and extraction from ruthenium has been revised (652) and distillation procedures necessary t o “clean up” processed iodine from solids have been published (266). Lcderer (505)describes his carrier-free separation of cesium-13 1 b y chromatography, while hlizzan (354)uses a phosphotungstate precipitation method t o separate this element. Salutsky and Kirhy (471) obtain carrier-free lanthanum-140 by precipitation of the barium parent as the nitrate. A new, simple, and rapid solvent-extraction method for separating cerium from fission products with methyl isobutyl ketone is reported by Glendenin and others (161), while Petrow (423) describes an ion exchange procedure for the determination of neodymium, praseodymium, and cerium in fission products. Stewart (526) suggests a rapid separation of tracer amounts of rare earth elements of the yttrium group using glycolic acid and cation exchange resins, while S e r vik (377) recommends the separation of rare earth elements b y a gradient elution method which tends to eliminate the large “tails” found on elution curves of the loll-er rare earths in standard methods. Stevenson and Hicks (523) separate tantalum and niobium 1)-
743 extraction with diisopropyl ketone, while Van Cleve and 11cDonough (568) have developed a n electroplating technique for t hallium-204. Natural Radioactivities and the Actinides. Hyde has recently made a compilation of radiochemical separation methods for the actinide elements, kvliich he presented at the Geneva Conference (229). This expellent paper lists numerous references to separations for this group. Lederer (303) studied the separation of lanthanum, actinium, and certain rare earth mixtures by continuous electrophoresis on paper sheets. Separations of radium from barium and its natural products are reported by ion exchange (456),paper chroniatography (478), and precipitation (179, 262). Separation of actinium from its daughter francium-223 has been effected by paper chromatography (.@a), and a n excellent general discussion of radiochemical methods for the isolation of francium (element 8 7 ) has been given by Hyde ($30). Articles describe the extraction of thorium, bismuth, and polonium from radium and lead by mesityl oxide (332) and the separation of uranium by filter paper partition chromatography (443). Three papers presented a t the Geneva Conference give the viewpoints of the United States (141), the United Kingdom ( I @ ) , and France (164) on the solvent extraction separation of uranium and plutonium from fission products, while a resume of recently declassified distribution coefficients for these elements in a number of solvents was presented in Nucleonics (597). The electrodeposition of plutonium is described by Moore and Smith (357). TRACER APPLICATIONS
Only part of the many applications of tracers in analysis are outlined below. T h e extent of their use seems to be limited only by the ingenuit.y of the research worker. Small amounts of radioactivity are ideal for tracing the passage of material through chromatographic or electrophoretic apparatus, whether i t be columns of ion exchange resins, alumina, or papers with one- or two-way flow. Many other types of analytical separations such as precipitations, extractions, and electrodepositions have also been studied with tracers. Chromatography (Including Ion Exchange). The suhjwt of ion exchange is being treated in detail in another review in this series, but much of the basic work in this field has been done using tracers. A number of references t o the general application of ion exchange t o analysis have been presented in two review papers (290, 408). Boyd and Soldano (50-62, 511) used tracers in investigating self-diffusion in different kinds of ion exchange resins. Tracers were important in the study of the use of ion exchange in the separation of traces of rare earth elements from uranium (116). The separation by ion exchange of phosphoru!: and iron (592), barium and strontium (49), antimony and tin (266), and scandium, lanthanum, and yttrium (446) has heen studied. Using some 12 different tracers, Freiling and coworkers (336, 589) investigated the effects of different complering agents on cation exchange separations. Bonner ( 4 5 ) discu the ion exchange equilibrium involving rubidium, cesium, an thallium ions. Feldman and others (134) describe the elution of beryllium with citrate, while Kadhakrishna (446) has studied separations of several natural radioactivities with DoLTex 50. Osborn (407) has applied cation exchange resins to the anal) of insoluble materials and Lindner (316) has attempted to peparate calcium-40 and calcium-45 by ion exchange. The Berkeley group (159) in their xork on new elements in the transuranium region have speeded up the separation of the actinides to such a degree that separations can he made by cation exchange in a mat,ter of a few minuteP. T h e anion exchange resins show great promise for effecting many rapid separations not previously possible. Kraus and his group a t Oak Ridge have spent several years evaluating the separations possible with these repins, using tracers in most cases
144
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
to determine the separations obtained. This work was summarized in the Geneva paper by Kraus and Nelson (283) and is documented in the previous papers by these authors (281, 282, 384-287,373-376). Herber and Irvine (205)studied the bromide complexes of cobalt, copper, zinc; and gallium with these resins. Lederer used tracers to study the paper’ chromatographic separation of different phosphate ions (304) and rheniuin. and technetium (906), while Dickey (115’) reports similar separations of radium D, E, and F. Winteringham (588) has introduced a new method for the tmo-dimensional paper chromatography of radioactive substances. Fouarge (144, 145) used chromatographic columns of cellulose to separate barium and strontium. Gapon, Ivanenko, and Rachinskil ( 1 5 5 ) used phosphorus-32 in a chromatographic study of phosphates, while Stokes and con-orkers (528) used iodine-131 to study the chromatographic separation of p-iodobenzoates of certain sterols. Strain and coivorkers hare used tracers in a number of their investigations of electrochromatographic separations (129, 476, 477, 590). Deimel (107) traced ribonucleic acids with phosphorus-32 in an electrophoretic separation, n-hile Lederer (307) used sulfur-35 and phosphorus-32 to study the separation of acids in the same type of procedure. Solvent Extraction. Tracers are of particular importance in solvent extraction studie8. Hicks and Gilbert (-010),Ellenburg, Leddicotte, and Moore ( 1 2 7 ) , and Scadden and Ballou ( 4 8 0 ) describe solvent extract,ion of niobium; Selidow and Diamond (372)investigated the solvent extraction behavior of molybdenum. Irving and Rossotti (233) used tracers in their research on the extraction of group I I I B metal halides, and Draganic (119) worked on t’he extraction of europium. Dyrssen and Dahlberg (125) extracted lanthanum, samarium, hafnium, thorium, and uranium with oxine and cupferron, n-hile Peppard and others (419) developed procedures for the separation of gram quantities of ionium (thorium-230). Ishimori ( 2 3 7 ) studied the estractability of very small amounts of organometallic compounds. Precipitation. I n homogeneous precipitation studies, Gordon and coworkers have used tracers for determination of the amount of coprecipitation of thallium mith silver chloride (168j, strontium with barium sulfate (169), and nianganese(I1j on basic stannic sulfate (170). Salutsky, Stites, and Martin (473) have determined the fractionation of radium-barium mixtures in precipitation as chromates from homogeneous solution. Lima (313) presents calculations of the amount of a tracer carried with precipitates of its parent. Teicher (543) has used the tracer technique t o study thoroughly the precipitation of barium carbonate. Bradacs and coworkers (54) experimented with various procedures for the determination of germanium with the help of radioactive germanium-71. Behavior at Low Concentration. Schneitzer and coworkers made tracer studies of the behavior at low concentrat,ions of lanthanum-140 (486) and sulfate and scandium ions (48.5). Granstrom and Kahn (174)used carrier-free cesium t o investigate the adsorption of low concentrations of cesium on paper. Kahn and Wahl (357) studied the chemical behavior of iodine at low concentrations, while Stehney and Sugarman (521) describe experiments on the interchange of fission product bromine with carrier bromine. Miscellaneous. Dean and Reynolds (104) developed a rapid method for the separation and determination of bismuth, antimony, and tin by controlled cathode electroanalysis using antimony and tin tracers. Ishibashi, Fujinaga, and Kusaka (235) used tracers t o study the separation of copper, bismuth, and lead by a controlled potential method. Milner and Smales (349) describe an absorptiometric determination of niobium in certain low grade minerals. They use niobium-95 t o determine the yield of the separation procedure, so that i t need not he quantitative. Boyd and Galan ( 5 3 ) , in developing a satisfactory colorimetric method for niobium and tantalum in steels, used tracers to determine the completeness of
-
precipitations a t various steps in the procedure. Several other authors also report (38, 279, 360) use of tracers in developing procedures for tantalum or niobium in mineials or stainless steels. Possible errors in the determination (168)of alkalies in silicates were studied by incorporating 1% rubidium-86 and 6% cesium134 into soda glass. Huttig, Simm, and Glawitsch ( 2 2 8 ) examined the grinding process of glass using cobalt-60. Harris, Stericker, and Spring (195)recommend a tracer method as most sensitive for indicating that a metal has been cleaned satisfactorily prior to electroplating. Hine and coivorkers ( H 4 ) describe multiple tracer techniques using scintillation counting for chromium-51 and iron-59 or potassium-42 and sodium-24. Mai and Babb (327) also use scintillation counting for vapor phase analysis with sulfur-35. A new, rapid tracer method for the determination of phosphorus in slags is reported (409) to give a precision within =!=62%Samarin (474) reviewed the use of tracers in the study of t h e production processes of steel and iron and Douglas (117‘) discussed the use of radioactive tracers t o tag special steel melts. Voice, Bell, and Gledhill (566) report the use of iadon t o determine the gas flow in large ducts and chambers operating a t high temperatures. Colding and E m a l l report ( 8 2 ) on wear studies of irradiated carbide cutting tools. Rushman (468)has m i t t e n an excellent article reviewing the use of tracers in paint research. Vandone (660) has written on the same subject, while Calkins and others (71) used tritium t o determine moisture gradients in attached protective coatings. Hull (225) described the use of tracers in refinery control. Van Bavel and Underwood (667) reviewed applications of tracers t o measurements of the physical properties of soil in its natural state, while other workers ( 2 6 )studied the determination of diffusible phosphate ions in soils by isotopic exchange. Lanibert and others (294) compare three types of labeled soils used in detergency tests. Auerbach and Gehman ( 1 4 ) suggest sulfur-35 for the study of sulfur solubility and diffusivity in rubber. The method is also applicable to carbon-14. Spitzy (517)tested his procedure for the determination of blood iodine with radioactive iodine, while Toribara and Sherman (547) found beryllium-i useful for their determination of beryllium. Spitzy and Skrube (618)were able t o extend the sensitivity of an iodine detection method with iodine-131, while Kallee (258) used this same isotope to trace the separation of insulin b y electrophoresis. Boothroyd and others (47) propose a procedure for determination of the carbon-14 distribution in labeled glucose. Brown and Jackson (63) offer a simple technique for the estimation of radioactive components of plasma containing iodine-131. Lyon and Reynolds (321) studied the radioactive species preqent in reactor cooling water n i t h a gamma-ray spectrometer.
INSTRC41ENTATION AND MEASURE\.IENT The field of instrumentation has progressed rapidly during the past 2 years. The Geiger counter, long the workhorse of radioactivity measurements> is being steadily replaced hi the proportional and scintillation counter. Taylor has revien ed recent developments in nuclear insti umentation ( 6 4 1 , 646). Sucleonzcs continues to publish nuniei 011s articles on techniques for improving measurements, a number of which have been compiled into a hook (384). Considerable progress has been made in the detection of small amounts of radioactivity in carbon-14 and tritium dating n ork. These advances have been !$-ell recorded and documented to the original literature by the Geneva papers of Ha)-es, Anderson, and Brnold (199) on liquid scintillation counting of natural radiocarbon and of Johnston ( 2 5 0 ) on low level counting and the future of isotopic tracers. I n a paper issued since the conference, Ballario and others (20) describe another apparatus for carbon-14 dating.
745
V O L U M E 28, NO. 4, A P R I L 1 9 5 6 Kohman and Saito (677) have reviewed all these uses of carbon14 and tritium dating and also have described other radiochemical contributions t o the fields of geology and cosmology in their excellent review article. Curran ( 9 7 )has also discussed methods for determination of geological age by radioactivity. SCINTILLATION COUNTING
This method, one of the earliest used to detect radioactive disintegrations (288, 565), was generally discarded with the advent of the more versatile Geiger tube. About 6 years ago, however, with the availability of photomultiplier tubes capable of detecting and amplifying scintillations coming in rapid succession, the scintillation method again gained prominence. One of its primary advantages lies in the ability of the dense detecting medium (crystals of sodium iodide or stilbene) to detect gamma rays with high efficiency. RIorton (362) has presented a n excellent review of recent developments in the scintillation counter field, as have Hayes, Anderson, and Langham (200) on the role of liquid scintillators in nuclear medicine. Other reviews of interest in this field have been written by S n a n k (533), Curran ( 9 6 ) ,and Birks (40),while A-ucleonzcs has recorded (386) various advances reported a t the 1954 Scintillation Counter Symposium in Washington, D . C. Scintillation n-ell counters and other modifications have been reported previously, but Loevinger and Feitelberg (317 ) have used this type of counter for assaying the beta-emitting phosphorus-32 TI ith an efficiency for this isotope of 0.8 count per 100 disintegrations. Haigh (184) emphasizes the fact that the scintillation counter is ten times more sensitive for n e a k solutions of iodine-131 and iron-50 than a jacketed beta counter. Wagner and Guinn (567) recommend liquid scintillation counting for low specific activity work and Terentiuk (544) found a liquid scintillation counter was able to determine beta emission in solid samples. Furst, Kallmann, and Brown (153)report a method to increase the fluorescence in liquid scintillator solutions. Solon and coworkers ( 5 1 2 ) discuss the interpretation of background data from scintillation detectors and a breakdown of factors contributing to the background has been given (398). Price and Hudson (437) report a method whereby both the specific activity and the position of a labeled material are determined simultaneously n ith a beta and ultraviolet photon counter. Hiebert and K a t t s (211) describe a fast coincidence circuit for niensurement of tritium and carbon-14. Swank and Moenich (534) report a procedure for packaging photomultiplier tubes and Fischer (139)descrilws preparation of large-area plastir scintillators.
radiochemical analysis a n d Kittel (672) describes the use of this type of instrument t o determine uranium burnup. Rosenthal and Anger (461) recommend the use of a liquid scintillation spectrometer for counting tritium and carbon-14 labeled compounds. When making measurements in which i t is impossible to compare the sample against a standard, it is necessary t o know the counting efficiency for gamma rays of different energy in the crystal. Kahn and Lyon (654) and McLaughlin and O’Kelley (324) give graphs of this information derived from calculations and substantiated with experimental data. Baskin, Demorest, and Sandhaus (29),Sterk and Wapstra (522), and Griffiths ( 1 7 8 ) give additional information of this type, while Rietjens and others (466) describe the influence of the distance between the source and the crystal on the counting efficiency. H e a t h and Schroeder ( 2 0 3 ) discuss the quantitative techniques of scintillation spectrometry as applied to the calibration of standard sources. Gamma rays are sloved down in matter in several different ways. T h e gamma ray may give up its entire energy t o a n electron of the absorbing material. This monoenergetic photoelectron registers as a sharp peak on the scintillation spectrum. I n a second possibility, known as the Compton effect, the gamma rav loses only part of its energy to the absorber and goes off in a different direction a t a lower energy. If these secondary gamma rays escape from the crystal, the pulses from the original monoenergetic gamma rays will be recorded as a continuous smear of energies with a definite maximum energy. This causes difficulty in gamma spectroscopy, when Compton distributions from higher energy lines interfere Tvith photopeaks of low energy lines. Bell ( 3 2 ) and Koch and Foote (276) recommend a large crystal to reduce the possibility of escape of the scattered gamma rays. Albert (3) and Peirson (418) utilize anticoincidence methods to minimize the Compton interference. Meyerhof and West (346) present their d a t a on this escape peak. I n gamma spectrometry, as in other forms of spectrometry, it is possible t o scan a spectrum of energies Jvith a window of variable n idth. Sumerous single-channel analyzers are available for this purpose. B s it is preferable, however, to use a number of wind o m side by side to register pulses of particular energy groups simultaneously, multichannel analyzers of many types have been developed. Kelley (264)described these methods of pulse analysis in his Geneva paper, which includes a n extensive bibliography. Engelkemeir and llagnusson (130) have also described a multichannel analyzer. hUCLEAR ERlULSIOhS
SPECTRORI ETRY
T h e scintillation techniques described above record many sizes of pulses coming from the crystal. Spectrometers, on the other hand, by recording only pulses of a given magnitude, take advantage of the fact t h a t the pulse from the crystal is proportional t o the energy of the particles initiating it. Siegbahn (500) has edited a n excellent reference book on nuclear spectrometry; another thorough review is given by Curran ( 9 5 ) . Salmon (470) treats the analytical aspects of gamma spectroscopy. O’Kelley (404, 405), Hine (213), and Borkowski and Clark ( 4 8 )have described types of scintillation spectrometers, while Miller (347)described a gamma proportional spectrometer. Problems and techniques of beta-ray spectrometry have been considered by Cook (87,88)and Marshall (333). T h e Hanford group gives procedures for analysis of radionuclide mixtures ( 8 6 )using a gamma-beta scintillation spectrometer a n d describes a method of analysis for low energy gamma-ray emitters (556). Moteff (563) reports the energy spectrum of gamma rays from gross fission products, a n d Keneshea a n d Saul (265) present graphs showing contributions of each element t o the beta activity in these same mixtures. K a h n and Lyon (254) present a n excellent discussion on the use of spectrometers in
While the nuclear emulsion is ideal for detecting individual radiations having peculiar properties, it is less satisfactory for routine measurements of integrated disintegrations. Thus although millions of films are used each year in film badge service and dental x-rays, the nuclear emulsion remains a curiosity to most workers assaying radioactivity. Goldschmidt-Clermont (165) has presented a n excellent review on photographic emulsions. Davenport and Stevens (100, 101) have used x-ray film to compare radioactivities. Coppens ( 8 9 ) applies nuclear plates t o the measurement of radioactivity in liquids, v hile Mayr (338) uses these plates in activation analysis. Dudley ( 1 2 1 ) gives a n excellent summary of the photographic detection of beta rays. Bhatnagar and Ghosh ( 3 9 ) suggest nuclear plates for the quantitative study of uranium in ore and point out that only by this method can the percentage of uranium present in the radioactive mineral portion of the ore be assayed. Katz and Chaikoff (263) separate compounds present in animal tissue on paper chromatograms, which m e then identified by radioautographs. Laporte has devised a new method which he calls “kinetic nucleography” for the absolute determination of the activity of a n alpha emitter using a nuclear emulsion (151, 252, 295, 458).
746 AB SO LLTE C0L-R-TING
Most analytical determinations n-ith rad~oisotopesare made by comparing the unknown with a standard of the same material to eliminate problems of geometry, scattering, absorption, mounting, etc. Where this is not possible, it is necessary t o resort to absolute counting. One popular technique is to use the 4-pi counter, consisting of two hemispheres, in the center of n.hich is counted a weightless sample on a very thin film Houtermans, Meyer-Schutzmeister, and Vincent (218, 345), Cohen (go), and Putman (438) have discussed the problems involved in these measurements. Pate and Yaffe ( 4 1 4 , 415) have begun a serieg of articles dealing n-ith the problems of absolute counting. Belcher (31) describes the use of liquid scintillation counters in absolute counting and Curtis and others (99) discuss ahsolute alpha counting. STANDARDS
In any form of analysis it is important to have available suitable standards to check the measuring equipment used. Manov has written two excellent articles (330, 331) revieii ing the situation regarding radioactivity standards. He includes numerous references to pertinent articles. Seliger and Schwebel (490) havc discussed the standardization of beta-emitting nuclides, presenting comparison results from a number of laboratories for several KBS radioactive standards. Reynolds and Brooksbank (453) propose the use of thallium-204 as a standard for radioassay. Hall and coworkers (163, 227) describe methods for the precision counting of alpha particles with special reference to standard sources.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY s) stem n-hich permits identification of particles from 10-k.e.v. betas t o 5-m.e.v. alphas. Suttle and Libby (53%) show that a 13 ide variety of simple beta emitters give exponential absorption curves when the sample, absorber, and counter are placed close in cylindrical geometry. This forms the basis for a method of absolute measurement of beta radioactivity in solids, which i. reliable to within about 5%. Growth and Decay. Another property of radioisotopes is their half life. This property enters into calculations of radioisotope build-up and decay in irradiations and forms the basis of a nomograph drawn by Stehn and Clancy (530). Representation of the growth and decay of the natural radioactive families requires romplicated sets of calculations. Articles relating to these calculations have been published by Kirby (269, %'0), Kirby and Kremer (271),and Flanagan and Senftle (140). Chromatography and Automation. With the advent of so much interest i n paper and column chromatography, it is natural that there should tx an effort to devise counting systems specifically for this technique. One group reports (196) using a &-pi counter for scanning the paper chromatograms, while a second (109) uses a gas flow proportional counter and a third ( 4 3 6 ) uses a combination fluoroscope and Geiger counter. Several devices have been reported (55, 73, 81, 309, 428, 587) t o scan paper chromatography strips automatically. Other automatic equipment has been designed for a scintillation well sample changer (110), a sample changer and recorder for dipping counters (323), an automatic fraction collector (105), and a windoxless flow counter operating as a continuous counter (128).
CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
There have been reported in the literature many special measurement techniques t o adapt available counting equipment better t o specific problems. For measuring weak beta-emitting substances, there are described a flow counter sample changer with positive out-gassing (209)) a proportional f l o counter ~ with high-humidity gas (380), a liquid sample beta counter (118)) and a gas sample counting method for soft beta emitters (381). Problems encountered in the preparation of weak beta emitters for counting (267, 463) and self-absorption difficulties inherent in routine measurements of these emitters have been investigated (98, 570). S a d e r and coiroikers (369) studied the performance of the internal counter operating both in the proportional and Geiger regions for several isotopes. Low Level Counting. Davidon (102) described a nomogram for counting time, and Crouch (93) discussed the significance of verv lorn counting rates. Sittkus, Ganz, and Remy (601) studied the hackground radiations, n hile Fafainian and Shamos (131) describe the effects of fall-out from an atomic blast on background counting rates. Miller and Leboeuf (348) describe the effect of high beta backgrounds on precision alpha counting. Kagner (668) describes methods for calculating the half life for low activities of short lived nuclides, and Riedel (454)discusses problems of statistical purity in nuclear counting. Veal1 and Baptista (563) describe a multitube gamma-counting apparatus for small ssmples. Absorption Measurements. T h e energy of a radiation can be determined by absorption curves. and Harley and Hallden (193) describe a method for analyzing these curves graphically to identify the emitters. Phillips and Jenkins (426) report another approach t o the same problem, \r hile Ferro (135) has been successful in using gold absorbers to identify the activity. Because of the high atomic number of the absorber, the absorption is almost exponential and hence the gold absorption coefficient can be used as a characteristic property of a radioisotope. Baker and others (18) describe a very wide range absorption counting
So many notes in the literature fall into this category that it has been possible t o point out only a few important sources of information. Papers presented a t the Geneva conference by Fields and Youngquist (136) and Dismuke and others (116) describe hot laboratory facilities and techniques suitable for radiochemical problems. Sucleonics (389) devoted 65 pages to a special report on hot laboratories and Frederick (148) described a high-radiation-level analytical laboratory. T h e emphasis placed on complicated equipment in niuch of the literature tends a t times t o give the erroneous impression that all radioisotope work requires quantities of specialized equipment. Bizzell ( 4 1 ) has listed certain basic equipment necessary for a radiochemical laboratory and suggests adaptations of simple, inexpensive equipment for this work. Xucleonics (386), in its annual buyers' guide, lists suppliers for all types of nucleonic equipment. SlFETY Underlying all applications of radioisotopes must be the principle of safety. The many articles written on the subject are summarized by Morgan, Snyder, and Ford (358, 359) in their recent reviews. Tabershan and Harris (537) adequately describe the administrative problems of radiation protection and Barker (26) has edited a handbook that is used a t Los $lamas for radiation monitoring. T h e National Buieau of Standards has issued two recent handbooks (370, 371) on radiation protection. Three specific aspects of safety warrant particular mention here: the isotope-handling calculator of West (578) for calculating isotope hazard, and the surveys made by Ahcleonics on commercial film badge service (393) and portable shielding material (395).
PATENTS T h e revision of the iltomic Energy Act in 1954 has made a drastic change in the basic rights of individuals and companies
V O L U M E 2 8 , N O . 4, A P R I L 1 9 5 6 regarding patents in atomic energy matters. Cole (83) ha.< givcii a lucid discussion of these changes and of t h e regulations in effect a t tlie presmt time.
smmw Thc application of radioisotopes t o analysis has proved to be no cure-all for the problems of the analyst. In fact, in none of the :+rticlesdescribed above has it been possible to make a n analysis t o ivithin the accuracy or precision obtainable with the simplest of‘ gwvimetric procedures. Fluharty sums it’ u p well at the conclusion of his excellent chapter on the de\I Spec. Tech. Pub. 159 (October 1954). ( i )A n n u a l Reaiew of .\’,/clear Science, Annual Review>, Inc.. Stanford, Calif. ( 8 ) Arrol, W.J., .YTucleonics 11, KO.5, 26-8 (1953). dpparatus for large scale production of phosphorus-32. (9) Ashton, G. C., Foster, 11. C., Analyst 80, 123-32 (1055). Isotope-dilution technique for determining benaylpenirillin in fernientation liquors. (10) Atchison, G. J., Beamer, \T. II.,~ ~ X A LCHEM. . 24, 1812-15 (1952). Determination of trace impurities in magnesium by activation analysis. ( 1 1 ) Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd., Commercial Products Division, P . 0 . Box 93, Ottawa, Canada, “Radioelements and Accessories for Industry, Research, and Medicine.” Catalog C, 1954. (12) -4tomic Energy Research Establishment, Isotope Division, (13) (14) (15)
(16)
Harwell, England, “Radioactive Materials and Stable Isotopes,” Catalog 2 (1950): Supplements 1 and 2 (1952). Audric, B. N., Long, J. V. P., Nature 173, 992-3 (1954). Use of dissolved acetylene in liquid scintillation counters for measurement of carbon-14 of low specific activity. .luerbach, I., Gehman, S. D., .IXAL. CHEM.26, 685-90 (1954). Tracer method for sulfur solubility and diffusivity in rubber. Bacher, F. A., Boley, A. E., Shonk, C. E., Zbid., 26, 1146-9 (1954). Radioactive tracer assay for vitamin B I and ~ other cobalamins in complex mixtures. Baker, E. 31.,Tolbert, B. AI., LIarcus, AI., Proc. Soc. EzcptE. Diol. & f e d . 88, 383-6 (1955); Suclear Sci. Abstr. 9 , 3940 (1955). . h a y of breath carbon-14 dioxide of humans using ionization chambers.
(31) (32) (33)
(34) (35) (30)
(37)
(38) (39) (40)
diffusion vessel; simple wet-combustion method for routine carbon-14 analyses. Baker, W. H., Curtis, AI. L., Gnagey, L. B., Heyd, J. W., Stanton, J. S., .\-ucleonics 13, No. 2 , 40-3 (1955). Very wide-range absorption counting system. Bakker, C. J., Rec. trau. chini. 74, 281-93 (1955). Production and physical properties of radioisotopes. Ballario, C., Beneventano, AI., De blarco, A, Alagistrelli, F.. Cortesi, C., Riontovani, T., Science 121, 409-12 (1955). Apparatus for carbon-14 dating. Ballentine, H.,Burford, D. D., Axar.. CHEX. 26, 1031-5 (1954). Radiochemical assay of cobalt-60. Bancie-Grillot, hZ., Grillot, E., Compt. rend. 237, 171-3 (1953). Radiochemical microdetermination of chlorine in 1uminesc.ent zinc sulfide crystals. Banks, T. E., Tupper, R., Watts, R. W. E., Wormall, -4,, Biochem. J . 59, 149-52 (1955). Determination of zinc-65 in tissues with Geiger and scintillation counters. Banks. T. E., Tupper, R., Watts, R. W. E., Wormall, A, S a t u r e 173, 348-9 (1954). Estimation of zinc in biological specimens. Determination of zinc-65. Barbier, G., Tyszkicwicz, E., Conipt. rend. 238, 1733-5 (1954); A n a l . Abstr. 1 , 2560 (1954). Determination of diffusable phosphate ion (HpP04-) in soils by isotopic exchange. Barker, R. F., ed., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. LA-1835 (September 1954); Suclear Sci. Abstr. 9 , 3928 (1955). General handbook for radiation monitoring. Barnes, H., Analyst 80, 573-92 (1955). Analysis of sea water. Basile, R., Huri., J., L6vPoue. P., Scliulil, C., Compt. rend. 239, 422-4 (1954); Anal. Abstr. 2 , 320 (1955). Determination of oxygen by ( r , n ) reaction utilizing betatron. Baskin, R., Deniorest, H. L.. Sandhaus, S., Nucleonics 12, S o . 8 , 46-8 (1954). Gainma c,ounting efficiency of two welltype S a 1 crystals. Beischer, D. E., Sucleonics 11, S o . 12, 24-7 (1953). Absolute beta measurement of tritium monolayers. Belcher, E. H., .I. Sci. Instr. 30, 286-9 (1953). Scintillation counters using liquid luminescent media for absolute standardization and radioactive assay. Bell, P. R . , Scienre 120, 625-6 (1954). Scintillation spectrometer with improved responae. Berlntan, I. B., Sitcleonics 11, KO. 2, 70 (1953). Determination of film exposure by activation of silver-109. Bernstein, 11. B., Kats, J. J., Ibid., 11, KO.10, 46-51 (1953). Fluorine-18, preparation, properties, uses. Berthet, J., Biochim. Riophys. Acta 15, 1-11 (1954); A71al. Abstr. 1, 3149 (1954). Method for continuously registering radioactivity during chromatography. Bethge, P. E., A n a l . Chim. Acta 10,317-20 (1954). .ipparatus for wet ashing of organic matter. Bettens, A. H., Eichholz, G. G., U. S. Atomic Energy Conimijsion, Rept. NP-5630 (February 1955) ; Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 9 , 4516 (1955). S e w assay unit for bagged radioactive ore. Beydon, J., Fisher, C., A7~al. Chim. Acta 8 , 538-45 (1953). Determinatia by radioactivity of mixed tantalum, niobium, and titanium oxides. Bhatnagar. A. S., Ghosh, P. C., Nucleonics 12, S o . 4, 58-9 (1954). Autoradiography for quantitative study of uranium in ore. Birks, J. B., “Scintillation Counters,” McGraw-Hill, Yew York,
1953. . (41) Bizzell, 0. lI., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. AECU-2875 (July 1954); .Vuclear Sci. Abstr. 8 , 4912 (1954). Equipment for radioisotope laboratories. (42) Boivinet, P., Calvet, E., Compt. rend. 238, 1995-7 (1954). Calibration of microcalorimeter by radioactive substance
having constant heat output. (43) Bolliger, W., Poretti, G. G., Ezperientia 11, 115-16 (1955); A d . Abstr. 2 , 2293 (1955). Kew apparatus for automatic measurement of radioactivity. (44) Bonino, J. J., Laing, K. ll.,Xucleonics 1 1 , S o . 2. 68 (1953). Punched-card classification of nuclides. (45) Bonner, 0. D., J . Phys. Cheni. 59,719-21 (1955). Ion exchange
equilibria involving rubidium, cesium, and thallium ions. (46) Boone, I. U., Turney, D. F., Woodward, K. T., U. S.Atomic Energy Conmission, Rept. AECU-2833 (1953) ; Suclear Sci. Abstr. 8 , 3299 (1954). Isolation of carbon-14-labeled DPK and TPK by paper chromatography from Lactobacillus plantarium. (47) Boothroyd, B., Brown, S. A., Thorn, J. A,, Seish, A. C., Can. J . Biochem. Phwiol. 33, 62-8 (1955); A n a l . Abstr. 2, 1296 (1955). Chemical determination of carbon-14 distribution
in labeled glucose.
748
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
(48) Borkowski, C. J., Clark, R. L., Rev. Sci. Instr. 24, 1046-50 (1953). Gamma-ray energy resolution with NaI-T1I
scintillation spectrometers. (49) Bovy, R., Duyckaerts, G., A n a l . Chim. Acta 1 1 , 134-44 (1954).
Separation of barium and strontium by ion exchange. (50) Boyd, G. E., Soldano, B. A., J . A m . Chem. SOC.75, 6091-9 (1953). Self-diffusion of cations in and through sulfonated polystyrene cation exchange polymers. (51) Ibid., pp. 6105-7. Self-diffusion of water molecules and mobile anions in cation exchangers. (52) Ibid., pp. 6107-10. Self-diffusion of cations in heteroionic cation exchangers. (53) Boyd, T. F., Galan, AI., ANAL.CHEM.,25, 1568-71 (1953). Determination of small amounts of niobium and tantalum using radioisotope tiacer technique. (54) Bradacs, L. K . , Ladenbauer, I. &I., Hecht, F., Mikrochim. Acta, SO.3, 229-43 (1953); A n d . Ahst?. 1, 457 (1954). Determination of germanium with help of radioactive germanium isotope. (55) Bradford, J. R., compiler and ed., “Chart of Isotopes,” Harshaw Scientific Division, Harshaw Chemical Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 1953. (56) Bradford, J. R., “Radioisotopes in Industry,” Reinhold, S e w York, 1953. (57) Ibid., pp. 224-5. (58) Bradley, J. E. S., Holloway, R. C., hIcFarlane, A. S., Biochem. J . (London) 57, 192-5 (1954). Assay of carbon-14 in gas phase as carbon dioxide. (59) Brandgo, F. A. G. A., Frota-Pessoa, E., Margem, S . , Perez, W., A n a i s acad. brasil. cienc. 25, 99-106 (1953); Anal. Abstr. 1, 694 (1954). Employment of liquid emulsion in titration of uranium from radioactive minerals. (60) Brooksbank, W. A., Leddicotte, G. W., J . Phys. Chem. 57, 819-23 (1953). Ion exchange separation of trace impurities. (61) Brooksbank, W, -4., Leddicotte, G. W.,hlahlman, H. A,. Ibid., 57, 815-19 (1953). Determination of trace impurities by neutron activation. (62) Brown, F., Jackson, H., Biochen. J . 56, 3 9 9 4 0 6 (1954). Simple technique for estimation of radioactive components of plasma after administration of radioactive iodide. (63) Brown, W.G., Kaplan, L., Van Dyken, A. R., Wilzbach, K. E., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 149 (USA) (1955). Tritium as tool for industrial and chemical research. (64) Brownell, G. L., Lockhart, H. S., AVucleonics 10, N o . 2, 26-32 (1952). Carbon dioxide ion-chamber techniques for radiocarbon measurements. (65) Bruce, F. R., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 719 (USA). (1955). Solvent extraction chemistry of the fission products. (66) Burr, J. G.. Jr., ANAL.CHEM., 26,1395-6 (1954). Apparatus for wet combustion of organic compounds containing carbon-14. (67) Burr, W. W., Jr., Marcia, J. A , Ibid., 27, 571 (1955). Preparation of pressed samples for counting carbon-14-labeled compounds. (68) Burrill, E. A., Gale, A . J.. “Activation Analysis with van de Graaff Neutron Sources,” High Voltage Engineering Corp., Cambridge, Mass., 1954. (69) Burtle, J. G., Ryan, J. P., ANAL.CHEY.27, 1215-17 (1955). Analysis of reaction products by isotope dilution procedure; examination of acrylic acid-ethyl alcohol reaction mixtures for diethyl ether formation. (70) Busey, H . AI., Wucleonics 12, KO.5, 9-13 (1954). Composition, decontamination of radioactive gas mixtures. (71) Calkins, G . D., Pobereskin, lI.,Young, V. E., Nowacki, L. J., Ibid., 13, KO.2 , 76-7 (1955). Tritium determines moisture gradient in attached protective coatings. (72) Canals, E., Marignan, R., Bardet, L., Ann. pharm. franc. 1 1 , 588-94 (1953); Anal. Abstr. 1 , 609 (1954). Absorption of beta-rays by solutions, colloids, and suspensions. (73) Carleson, G., Acta Chem. Scand. 8 , 1693-6 (1954); Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 9 , 1484 (1955). Separation of small amounts of inorganic cations by chromatographic methods. Automatic scanner for radio paper chromatograms. (74) Carleson, G., Acta Chern. Scand. 8 , 1697-700 (1954); Jl’uclear Sci. Abstr. 9 , 1485 (1955). Separation of small amounts of inorganic cations by chromatographic methods. Spallation of copper with 60-m.e.v. protons. (75) Cathers, G. I., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 743 (CSA), (1955). Radiation damage to radiochemical processing reagents. (76) Cember, H . , Watson, J. A , , Grucci, T. B., Nucleonics 12, No. 8 , 40-1 (1954). Procedure for digestion and radioassay of animal tissues. (77) Chem. Eng. Sews 33, 1904 (1955). Fire detection sans flame and heat.
(78) Cheong, L., Perri, G. C., Sharpe, L. M., ANAL.CHEX.26, 2423 (1954). Assay of radioiron and radiosilver in biological
samples. (79) Christian, J. E., Pinajian. J. J., J. Am. Pharm. Assoc., Sei. E d . 42, 304-7 (1953). Isotope dilution procedure of analysis. (80) Cohen, R., Ann. phys. 7, 185-237 (1952); Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 7, 4187 (1953). Absolute measurement of beta activities,
and application for determination of neutron densities. (81) Cohn, D. V., Buckaloo, G. W., Carter, W. E., Nucleonica 13, No. 8 , 48 (1955). Automatic paper-strip scanner for de-
tecting radioactivity. (82) Colding, B., Ermall, L. G., Ibid., 11, No. 2, 46-9 (1953). Wear studies of irradiated carbide cutting tools. (83) Cole, W. S.,Ibid., 13, S o . 4, 31-5 (1955). Patenting nuclear
developments. (84) Collins, C. J., Ropp, G. -I., J . Am. Chem. Soc. 77, 4160-1 (1955). Accuracy obtained in Van Slyke combustion and
radioassav of carbon-14 comoounds.
(85) Comar, C. ”L , ”Radioisotope; in Biology and Agriculture.” AlcGraw-Hill, Sew York, 1955. (86) Connally, R. E., Leboeuf, hl. B.. ~ N A L .CHEM.25, 1095-100 (1953). Analysis of radionucleide mixtures using gamma-
beta scintillation spectrometer. (87) Cook, C. S., A‘ucleonics 1 1 , S o . 12, 28-31 (1953). (88) (89) (90)
(91) (92)
(93)
(94) (95) (96) (97) (98) (99) (100) (101) (102) (103) (104) (105) (106)
(107)
(108) (109)
Experimental techniques in beta-ray spectroscopy. Ibid., 12, No. 2, 43-7 (1954). Experimental techniques in beta-ray spectroscopy. Coppens, R., J . phys. radium 15, 588-9 (1954); Xuclear Sci. Abstr. 8, 5908 (1954). Application of nuclear photographic ~. plate to measurement of radioactivity of liquids. Craig, J. T., Tryon, P. F., Brown, W. G., ANAL.CHEM.25, 1661-3 (1953). Determination of gamma-isomer content of benzene hexachloride by chlorine-36 isotope dilution method. Cranston, R. W.,AIatthews, F. W. H., Evans, N., J . Inst. Petroleum 40, 55-63 (1954). Sunbury x-ray absorption method for rapid determination of sulfur in hydrocarbons. Crompton, C. E., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 164 (USA), (1955). Versatility of radiation applications involving penetration or reflection. Crouch, E. A. C., Brit. -4toniic Energy Research Establishment Rept. AERE-C/R-1458 (July 1954); *Tuclear Sei. Abstr. 9 , 1034 (1955). Statistical significance of very low counting rates. Curie, I., J. phys. radiuwi 15, 1-6 (1954). Determination of properties of mesothorium, radium, and radiothorium in ampoule of commercial mesothorium. Curran, S. C., Advances i n Phys. 2 , 411-49 (1953). Gammaray spectroscopy. Curran, S. C., “Luminescence and the Scintillation Counter.” Academic Press, Xew York, 1953. Curran, S. C., Quart. Reu. London 7, KO. 1, 1-18 (1953). Activation analysis. Curtis, XI. L., Heyd, J. W., ANAL.CHEY.27, 1073-6 (1955). Routine energy measurements of soft radiations. Curtis, M. L., Heyd. J. W.,Olt, R. G., Eichelberger, J. F., A’ucleonics 13, S o . 5, 38-41 (1955). Absolute alpha counting. Davenport, A. N., Stevens, G. W.W..Brit. J . A p p l . Phys. 6 , 3 1 4 (1955). Comparison of radioactivities by use of x-ray am. Davenport, A . N . , Stevens, G. W. W.,Y a t u r e 174, 178-9 (1954). Use of x-ray film for comparing radioactivities. Davidon, W.C., -Vucleonics 1 1 , S o . 9. 62 (1953). Somogram for counting time. Dawson, R. 31. C., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 14, 374-9 (1954). Measurement of phosphorus-32 labeling of individual kephalins and lecithin in small sample of tissue. Dean, J . .4.,Reynolds, S..I..A n a l . Chim. Acta 11,390-5 (1954). Rapid separation and determination of bismuth, antimony, and tin by controlled cathode electroanalysis. DeBroske, J. h l . F., Crisp, L. R., Rev. Sei. Instr. 24, 547-9 (1953). Automatic fraction collector. DeFraenz, I. G., Seelmann-Eggebert, W.,Publs. corn. nacl. energia afomica (Buenos Aires), Ser. quim. 1, KO.1, 1-9 (1954); Suclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 4388 (1955). Radiochemical method for determination of uranium-235 in uranium. Deimel, lI.,Biochern. 2. 325, 358-65 (1954); Anal. Abst?. 1 , 2848 (1954). Separation of ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acid by electrophoresis. Detection of ribonucleic acids by marking with phosphorus-3%. Deisler, P. F., Jr., LlcHenry, K. W,, Jr.. Wilhelm, R . H., ANAL.CHEM.27, 1366-74 (1955). Rapid gas analyzer using ionization by alpha particles. Demorest, H . L., Baskin, R., Ibid., 26, 1531-2 (1954). Gas
V O L U M E 28, NO, 4, A P R I L 1 9 5 6 flow counter for scanning paper chromatograms and paper ionograms. (110) Demorest, H. JA, Erickson, J. H., Sucleonics 12, No. 7, 68-9 (1954). Automatic sample changer for well-type scintillation counter. (111) Dewar, h I . -4.,Hentz, R. R., Ibid., 13, KO.2, 54-6 (1955). Potentiometric determination of iron by x-ray oxidation. (112) Dick, J. L., Kurbatov, AI. H., J . Am. Chem. SOC.76, 5245 (1954). Carrier-free separation of cobalt-56, cobalt-57, and cobalt-58 from manganese target. (113) Dickey, E. E., J . Chem. Educ. 30, 525 (1953). Separation of radium D, E , and F by paper chromatography. (114) Dietrich, J . E., Kennedy, TV. R., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. UCLA-315 (Sovember 1954) ; .Yuclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 701 (1955). Liquid scintillation counter for carbon-14. (115) Dismuke, S. E., Feldman, A I . J., Parker, G. W.,Ring, F., Jr., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 723 (USA) (1955). Hot laboratory facilities and techniques for handling radioactive materials. (116) Dolar, D., DraganiC, Z., Rec. trav. inst. recheiches structure mat. 2, 77-83 (1953); A n a l . Abstr. 1, 81 (1954). Separation of traces of rare earth elements from uranium by amberlite IR-120 resin. (117) Douglas, D. L., .Y7~cleonzcs 12, KO,1, 16-18 (1954). Radioactive tracers for tagging special steel melts. (118) Douglas, D. L., U. 6. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. KAPL-Memo-DLD-3 (March 1953); Sucleai Sci. Bbstr. 7, 4630 (1953). Liquid sample beta counter, new laboratory counting facility. (119) Dragani6, I., Bull. Inst. Sziclear Sei. “Boris Kidrich” (Bel-wade’), 2.. 73-5 (1953): Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 8, 4014 (1954). Extraction of europium nitrate traces using radioactive europium-152 as indicator. (120) Dresia, H., Z . anal. Chem. 144, 81-90 (1955). Determination of potassium in solution by Geiger-Muller counter. (121) Dudley, R. -4.. Nucleonics 12, S o . 5, 24-31 (1954). Photographic detection and dosimetry of beta rays. (122) Dunn, F. J., Mosley, J. R., Potter, R. M.,*4NAL. CHEW27, 63-4 (1955). Separation of mixtures of tritium and hydrogen using Hertz pumps. (123) Dnrbin, P. W., Hamilton, J. G., Parrott, AI. W., U. S.Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. UCRL-2792 (Sovember 1954). Suclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 1477 (1955). Codetermination of iodine-127, iodine-131, and astatine-211 in tissue. (124) Duval, J. E., Kurbatov, AI. H., J . Am. Chem. Soc. 75, 2246-8 (1953). Separation of carrier-free scandium from calcium target. (125) Dyrssen, D., Dahlberg, V., Acta Chem. Scand. 7, 1186-96 (1953). Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 8, 504 (1954). Extraction of metal complexes. Extraction of lanthanum, samarium, hafnium, thorium, and uranium. (126) Eichholz, G. G., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. NP-5439; TR-120/54 (Kovember 1954): Suclear Sei. Abstr. 9, 878 (1955). Routine radiometric determination of uranium in ores. (127) Ellenburg. J. Y . , Leddicotte, G. W., Moore, F. L., ANAL. CHEM. 26, 1045-7 (1954). Separation of niobium and tantalum by liquid-liquid extraction. (128) Emmons, -1.H., Sorton, J. A , , Arucleonics 11, KO.12, 58 (1953). Windowless gas-flow counter operated as continuous flow counter. (129) Engelke, J. L., Strain. H. H., r l ~ a CHEM. ~. 26, 1872-4 (1954). Electrical mobility of phosphate ions in paper electrochromatography. (130) Engelkemeir, D. W., Nagnusson, L. B., Reu. Sci. Instr. 26, 295-302 (1955). Resolution of alpha-particle spectra by ionization pulse analysis of collimated samples. (131) Fafarman, A,, Shamos. A l . H., Sucleonics 11, KO.6 , 80-1 (1953). Effect of fall-out from atomic blast on background counting rate. (132) Faires, R . A , . Johnston, J . E., hlillett, R. J., Ibid., 12, KO.10, 48-51 (1954). Advances in isotope techniques. (133) Fearnside, K., Jones, E . TI‘., Shaw, E. N., “Applied Atomic Energy,” Philosophical Library, S e w York, 1954. (134) Feldman, I., Toribara, T. Y., Havill, J. R., Neuman, W.F., J . Am. Chem. SOC. 77, 878-81 (1955). Beryllium-citrate system. Ion exchange studies. (135) Ferro, A I . , Z . P h y s i k 138, 441-8 (1954). Isotope determination by gold absorption method. (136) Fields, P. R., Youngquist, C. H., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 725 (USA) (1955). Hot laboratory facilities for radiochemical problems. (137) Finston, H . L., “Radiochemical Separations Compilation,” Atomic Energy Commission, Xational Research Council, and Brookhaven Sational Laboratory, 1954.
749 (138) Finston, H. L., Aliskel, J., Ann. Rev. Suclear Sci. 5, 269-96 (1955). Radiochemical separation techniques. (139) Fischer, J., Nucleonics 13, KO.5, 52-4 (1955). Preparing large-area plastic scintillators. (140) Flanagan, F. J., Senftle, F. E., ASAL. CHEW 26, 1595-600 (1954). Tables for evaluating Bateman equation coefficients for radioactivity calculations. (141) Flanary, J. R., Culler, F. L., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 539 (ES.1) (1955). Solvent extraction separation of uranium and plutonium from fission products. (142) Fletcher, J. AI., Ibid., Paper 413 (UK). Chemical principles in separation of fission products from uranium and plutonium by solvent extraction. (143) Foster, L. hI., Gaitanis. C. D., ANAL.CHEY.27, 1342-4 (1955’. Determination of phosphorus in aluminum and aluminum oxide by radioactivation analysis. (144) Fouarge, J., A n a l . Chim. Acta 12, 231-8 (1955). Separation of barium and strontium by chromatography with cellulose. Chromatography 15ith strips of paper. (145) Ibid., pp. 342-50. Separation of barium and strontium by chromatography Tvith cellulose. Chromatography with cellulose powder. (146) Francis, G. E . , LIulligan, W., Wormall, A . , “lsotopic Tracers. Theoretical and Practical Manual for Biological Students and Research Workers,” Athlone Press, London, 1954. (147) Franklin, E., Barnes, R. K., Brit. Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Rept. AERE-EL/R-l175 (1953) ; Sirclear Sei. Abstr. 8 , 1525 (1954). Radiometric assay of uranium and thorium ores. (148) Frederick, E. J., h’ucleonics 12, No. 11, 36-7 (1954). Highradiation-level analytical laboratory. (149) Friedlander, G., Kennedy, J. W., “Xuclear and Radiochemistry,” Wiley, Kew York, 1955. (150) Friedlander, G., Perlman, M.,“Chart of Nuclides” (rev. by J. R. Stehn, to November 1952), General Electric Co., Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Schenectady, N. Y. (151) Frilleg, If.,Compt. rend. 237, 1326-7 (1953); LYuclear Sei. Abstr. 8, 1412 (1954). Apparatus for registering particles emitted by radioelements: cinenucleograph. (152) Frilley, h l . , J . p h y s . radium 15, 715-17 (1954); Suclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 714 (1955). Realization of kinetic nucleography of Laporte. (153) Furst, AT., Kallmann, H., Brown, F. H., .YucZeonics 13, KO.4, 58-60 (1955). Increasing fluorescence effiriency of liquid scintillation solutions. (154) Gabourel, J. D., Baker, 11. J., Koch, C. W., ANAL.C H E X 27, 795-7 (1955). Simultaneous determination of total carbon and carbon-14 activity; combustion method. (155) Gapon, E. N., Ivanenko, D. D., Rachinskii, V. V., Compt. rend. acad. sci. U.S.S.R. 95, 567-70 (1954); A n a l . Abstr. 1, 2959 (1954). Radiochromatographic study of kinetics of exchange absorption of phosphate ions on inorganic adsorbents. (156) Garrow, J., Piper, E. A , , Biochem. J . (London) 60, 527-8 (1955). Simple technique for counting milligram samples of protein labeled with carbon-14 and sulfur-35. (157) Gaudin, A. h l . , Bergna, H. E., ASAL.CHEM.27, 467-8 (1955). High frequency induction furnace in determination of radiocarbon. (158) Geilmann, W., Ganssle, A., Glastech. Ber. 27, 80-8 (1954); Anal. Abstr. 2, 1783 (1955). Possible errors in determination of alkalies in silicates. (159) Ghiorso, A., Harvey, B. G., Choppin, G. R.. Thompson, S.C . , Seaborg, G. T., Phys. Rev. 98, 1518-19 (1955). S e w element mendelevium, atomic number 101. (160) Glascock, R. F., “Isotopic Gas Analysis for Biochemists.” Academic Press, iXew York, 1954; Xuclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 2180 (1955). (161) Glendenin, L. E . , Flynn, K. F., Buchanan, R. F., Steinberg, E. P., ANAL.CHEM.27, 59-60 (1955). Radiochemical determination of cerium in fission. (162) Glendenin, L. E., Steinberg, E. P., Ann. Rea. Nuclear Sci. 4 , 69-80 (1954). Fission radiochemistry (ION energy fission). (163) Glover, K. AI., Hall, G. R., S a t u r e 173, 991-2 (1954). Precision alpha-particle counting. (164) Goldschmidt, B., et al., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 349 (France), (1955). Solvent extraction of plutonium from uranium irradiated in atomic piles. (165) Goldschmidt-Clermont, Y., -4n.n. Rev. Suclear Sci. 3, 141-70 (1953). Photographic emulsions. (166) Gora, E . K., Hickey, F. C. ASAL. CHEW.26, 1158-61 (1954) Self-absorption correction in carbon-14 counting. (167) Gordon, C. L., Ibid., 26, 176-81 (1954). Xucleonics (sixth annual review of analytical chemistry).
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
750 (168) Gordon, L., Peterson, J. I., Burtt, B. P., Ibid., 27, 1770-4 (1955). Coprecipitation of thallium(1) with silver chloride
from homogeneous solution. (169) Gordon, L., Reimer, C. C., Burtt, B. P., Ibid., 26, 842-6 (1954). (170) (171) (172)
(173)
(174) (175) (176) (177) (178) (179) (180)
(181)
(182)
(183) (184) (185) (186) (187) (188)
(189) (190) (191) (192) (193) (194) (195) (196) (197)
Distribution of strontium within barium sulfate precipitated from homogeneous solution. Gordon, L., Teicher, IT., Burtt, B. P., Ibid., 26, 992-6 (1954). Coprecipitation from homogeneous solution; manganese(I1) on basic stannic sulfate. Gordon, hl., Virgona, A. J., Sumerof, P., Ibid., 26, 1208-10 (1954). Isotope dilution assay for total penicillins. Govaerts, J., Baudrenghien, A . , Bull. soc. roy. sei. Libge, KO.4 , 90-5 (1955); Nuclear Sei. Abstr. 9 , 6728 (1955). Technique3 used a t Institut de Physique Kucleaire de l’Universit6 de LiBge. Determination of specific activity of calcium45 by collapsible centrifuge tube. Goyanes, C. B., Serrano, E. S., Gomis, C., BoZ. Radiactiv. 26, 37-43 (1954); Anal. ilhstr. 2 , 322 (1955). Determination of phosphorus and arsenic (as phosphates and arsenates) by radioactive silver. Granstrom, M. L., Kahn, B., 6.P h y s . Chem. 59,408-10 (1955). Adsorption of cesium in low concentration by paper. Green, D. T., Errington, R. F., Boyd, F. C., Hopkins, N. J., YucZeonics 11, No. 5, 29-37 (1953). Production of multicurie gamma-ray teletherapy sources. Green, M., Kafalas, J. A . , J . Chem. Phys. 22, 760 (1954). Preparation and insolation of carrier-free arsenic-74 from germanium cyclotron targets. Griess, J. C., Jr., Rogers, L. B., U. S. Patent 2,612,470 (1952). Selective electrodeposition of silver. Griffiths, G. AI., Can. J . Phys. 33,209-18 (1955). Pulse height distribution from sodium iodide single crystal scintillation counter and measurement of gamma ray fluxes. Giibeli, O., Jucker, H . , Helv. Phys. Acta 38, 492-9 (1955). Concentration of radium in radium-barium mixtures. Hahn, R . B., Anderson, li. L., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. AECU-2910 (19541); Fuclear Sei. Abstr. 8, 4895 (1954). Radiochemical methods for determination of phosphorus-32. Hahn, R. B., Backer, R. O., U. S. .Itomic Energy Commission, Rept. AECU-2903 (1954?), Suclear Sci. Abstr. 8, 4893 (1954). Determination of radioactive cesium in fission products. Hahn, K. B., Skonieczny, R. F., U . S. htoinic Energy Commission, Rept. AECU-2908 (1954?), .\‘uclear Sei. Abstr. 8, 4894 (1954). Determination of radioactive zirconium in fission products. Hahn, R. B., Straub, C. P., J . A m . Water Works Assoc. 47, 335-40 (1955); .\ruclear Sci. A b s t r . 9 , 5604 (1955). Determination of radioactive strontium and barium in water. Haigh, C. P., ,VucZeonics 12, S o . 1, 34-9 (1954). Gamma-ray scintillation counter for weak radioactive solutions. Hall, N. F., Johns, D. H., J . Am. Chem. SOC.75,5787-91 (1953). Separation of technetium from molybdenum, cobalt, and silver. Hall, T. A, Nucleonics 12, S o . 3, 34-5 (1954). Chemical element analysis of radioactive mixtures in biological material. Hallden, N. A,, Ibid., 13, S o . 6, 78-9 (1955). Beta emitters by energy and half life. Hamlen, R. P., Koski, W. S., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. MCC-1023-TR-117 (February 1955) ; S u clear Sci. Abstr. 9 , 4380 (1955). Boron analysis by neutron absorption. Hankes, L. V., h A I . . CHEM.27, 166-7 (1955). Electric heater for Van Slyke-Folch carbon combustion apparatus. Hansson, K. F., Svensk Papperstidn. 56,590-7 (1953); Suclear Sei. Abstr. 8 , 307 (1954). Determination of basic weight of paper with beta comparator LKB 3265. Harbottle, G., Maddock, A. G., U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. BNL-1438 (1953), Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 7 , 5038 (1953). Preparation of chromium-51 of high specific activity. Harley, J. H., Nucleonics 1 1 , No. 7 , 12-15 (1953). Sampling and measurement of air-borne daughter products of radon. Harley, J. H., Hallden, N., Ibid., 13, KO. 1, 32-5 (1955). Analyzing beta absorption graphically to identify emitters. Harley, J . H., Wiberley, 8. E., “Instrumental Analysis,” Wiley, Sew York, 1954. Harris, J. C., Stericker, W., Spring, S., A S T M Bull., No. 204, 3 1 4 (1955): Anal. Abst,. 2, 2108 (1955). Suggested guide to metal cleaning (prior to electroplating). Harrison, A., Winteringham, F. P. W., Sucleonics 13, Xo. 3. 64-8 (1955). 4-pi beta counter for scanning paper chromatograms. Harrison, G. E., Raymond, W. H. A , J . A-uclear E?JergU 1, 290-8 (1955). Estimation of trace amounts of barium 01 strontium in biological materlal by activation analysis.
(221) (222) (223)
(224) (225) (226) (227) (228)
Hatfield, E. J., Jr., Nucleonics 11, No. 9, 48-54 (1953). Precision balances for radioisotopic applications. Hayes, F. N., Anderson, E. C., Arnold, J. R., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva. Paper 68 (USA), (1955). Liquid scintillation counting of natural radiocarbon. Hayes, F. N., Anderson, E. C., Langhain, W.H., Ibid., Paper 67 (USA). Role of liquid scintillators in nuclear medirine. Hayes, F. N., Gould, R. G., Science 117,480-2 (1953). Liquid scintillation counting of tritium-labeled water and organic compounds. Haywood, D., I n d . Chemist 30, 499-500 (1954); Anal. Abstr. 2 , 595 (1955). Analysis for industry; determination of phosphates. Heath, R. L., Schroeder, F., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. IDO-16149 (1st rev.) (April 1955); Nuclear Sei. Abstr. 9 , 5424 (1955). Quantitative techniques of scintillation spectrometry applied to calibration of standard sourmr. Henson, A. F., Brit. J . A p p l . Phys. 4 , 217-19 (1953). Aleusurement of radioactive carbon in gas counters. Herber, R. H., Irvine, J. W., Jr., J . Am. Chem. Soc. 76, 98799 (1954). Anion exchange studies. Bromide complexes of Co(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), and Ga(II1). Herr, W., Angew. Chem. 64, 679-85 (1952). Activation analysis. Herr, W.,2. Saturforsch. 8a. 305-7 (1953). Radiometric method for determination of isotope cotngo,jition of lithium salts. Heukelekian, € I . , Sewage I n d . Wastes 26, 573-615 (1951) ; AnaZ. Abstr. 1, 2841 (1954). Critical review of literature of 1953 on sewage, waste treatment, and water pollution. Analytical methods, sewage, and radioactivity. Hickey, F. C., AXAL.CHEM.26, 1530 (1954). Flow counter sample changer with positive outgassing. Hicks, H. G., Gilbert, It. S., Ibid., 26, 1205-6 (1954). Extraction of niobium into diisopropyl ketone from hydrochloric acid solutions. Hiebert, R. D., Watts, R. J., Sucleonics 11, Yo. 12, 38-41 (1953). Fast-coincidence circuit for tritium and carbon-14 measurements. Hill, It., Jones, A. G., Palin, D. E., Chemistry and Industry, 1954, S o . 6, 162-3. Determination of gamma isomer in crude benzene hexachloride by carbon-14 isotope dilution method. Hine, G. J., Nucleonics 11, KO. 10, 68-9 (1953). Fast and simple gamma-ray scintillation spectrometer. Hine, G. J., Burrows, B. A., Apt, L., Pollycove, M., Ross, J. F., Sarkes, L. A., Sucleonics 13, No. 2. 23-5 (1955). Scintillation counting for multiple-tracer studies. Hine. G. J., AIcCall, R. C., Ibid., 12, S o . 4 , 27-30 (1954). Gamma-ray back-scattering. Hollaender, A ., “Radiation Biology,” XcGraw-Hill, Sew York, 1954. Hollander, J. M., Perlman, I., Seaborg, G. T., Revs. dloderrr Phys. 25,469-651 (1953). Table of isotopes. Houtermans, F. G., ~\leyer-Sclibtsmeister,L., Vincent, D. H., 2 . Physik 134, 1-8 (1952); Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 7, 3841 (1953). ,\bsolute calibration of high-energy beta emitters with 4-yi counter. Hudswell, F., Miles, B. J., Payne, B. R., Payne, J. A . , Scargill, P., Taylor. K. J., British Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Rept. AERE-I/R-1386 (April 1954) ; Xuclear S c i . Abstr. 8, 5635 (1954). Preparation for dispeming of mi+ cellaneous radioisotopes. Huffman. J. R., Sucleoruks 12, No. 4. 21-6 (1954). Ilaterials testing reactor. Hughes,-D. J., Ibid., 11, No. 1, 30-5 (1953). Reactor as neutron source. Hughes, D. J., “Pile Seutron Research ” dddison Wesley Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1953. Hughes, D. J., Harvey, J. A , , 5. 9. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. BNL-325 (July 1955). Xeutron cross sections. Hughes, H . K., Wilczewski, J. W.,ASAL. CHEX 26, 188993 (1954). K-capture spectroscopy; iron-55 x-ray absorption determination of sulfur in hydrocarbons. Hull, D . E., A\r’ucZeonics 13, S o . 4 , 18-21 (1955). Using tracers in refinery control. Hursh, J. B., Jbid., 12, KO.1, 62-5 (1954). 1Ieasurement of breath radon by charcoal adsorption. Hurst, It., Hall, U . I?., Analyst 77, 790-800 (1952). Preciyion counting of alpha particles with special reference to determination of staudard sourem. Huttig. G. F., Simm, IT,, Glarvitsch, U., .lfonatsh. Chem. 85, 1124-32 (1954); A n a l . Abstr. 2 , 1724 (1955). Kinetics and thermodynamics of grinding processes. Use of radioisotopes.
V O L U M E 28, NO. 4, A P R I L 1 9 5 6 (229) Hyde, E. K., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 728 (USA) (1955). Radiochemical separations methods for actinide elements. (230) Hyde, E. K., J . Am. Chem. Soe. 74, 4181-4 (1952). Radiochemical methods for isolation of element 87 (francium). (231) Ikeda. S., J . Chem. S o t . J a p a n 75, 97 (1954); Anal. Abstr. 2, 934 (1955). Determination of sulfur-35 in organic sulfur compounds. (232) Ikeda, 9.. Kanbara, S.,J . Chem. SOC.J a p a n , Pure Chem. Sect. 75, 1308-11 (1954); A n a l . Abstr. 2, 1599 (1955). Determination of elementary sulfur (in vulcanized rubber) by isotopic dilution method. (233) Irving, H. hl., Rossotti, F. J. C., Analyst 77, 801-12 (1952). Solvent extraction of group I I I B metal halides. (234) Isaac, N.,Picciotto, E., Nature 171, 742-3 (1953). Ionium determination in deep sea sediments. (235) Ishibashi, A I . , Fujinaga, T., Kusaka, Y . ,J. Chem. SOC.J a p a n 75, 13-14 (1954); Anal. Abstr. 2, 561 (1955). Chemical studies on radioactive indicators. Controlled-potential electroseparation of copper, bismuth, and lead and radioactive indication by thorium-B and t h o r i u m 4 tracer. (236) Ishimori, T., Bull. Chem. SOC.J a p a n 26, 336-8 (1953); Anal. Abstr. 1 , 43 (1954). Radiometric determination of small amounts of thallium. (237) Ishimori, T., Bull. Chem. SOC.J a p a n 27, 139-43 (1954); Anal. Abstr. 1, 2699 (1954). Radiochemical studies on ultramicro quantities of organometallic compounds. Determination of composition of organometallic compound in an ultramicro amount. (238) Ishimori, T., and Takashinia, Y., Bull. Chem. Soc. J a p a n 26, 481-4 (1953); A n a l . Abstr. 1, 896 (1954). Radiometric determination of small amounts of potassium. (239) Isotopics, Isotopes Division, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Information, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (240) Isotopics 4, KO.1, 4-18 (1954). List of availableisotope-labeled compounds and suppliers. (241) Ibid., 4, Kos. 2, 3, and 4, 8-11 (1954). Slide illustrations. (242) Ibid., pp. 13-14. Films available on loan. (243) Jacobs, R. B., Lewis, L. G., Oil & Gas J . 52, S o . 21, 128-30 (1953). Speedy, accurate hydrogen measurement. (244) Jakovlev, J. V., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 632 (USSR),(1955). Quantitative determination of impurities in high-purity metals through radioactivation analysis. (245) James, J. A., Richards, D. H., Nature 175, 769-70 (1955). Radioactivation analysis of arsenic in silicon. (246) Jarrett, A. A., Berger, S., Xucleonics 13, S o . 1, 64 (1955). Producing radioisotopes in very low power reactors. (247) Jenkins, E. N., Analyst 80, 301-13 (1955). Determination of small quantities of thorium by radioactivation. 1248) Jenkins, 11’. A., ANAL.CHEM.25, 1477-80 (1953). Estimating tritium content of tritiated water. (249) Johnston, J. E., Faires, R. A , , Alillett, R. J., eds.. “Radioisotope Conference, 1954. Proceedings of Second Conference, Oxford, 19-23 July, Vol. 11, Physical Sciences and Industrial Applications,” Butterworths Scientific Publications. London, 1954; Lvuckar s c i . Abstr. 9, 3807 (1955). (250) Johnston, W. H., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 150 (USA) (1955). Lowlevel counting and future of isotopic tracers. (251) Jordan, G. G., Brodsky, V. B., Sotskov, B. S.,Ibid., Paper 704 (USSR). Application of radioisotopes to control technological processes. (252) Jucker, H., Treadwell, W. D., Helv. Chim. Acta 37, 2002-10 (1954). Precipitation of radium and barium sulfate. (253) Kahn, B., “Separation of Radionuclides. Abstracts of Unclassified llethods,” Waste Disposal Research Section, Health Physics Division, Oak Ridge Sational Laboratory, Oak Ilidge, Tenn., 1953. (254) Kahn, B., Lyon, IT. S., Sucleonics 11, S o . 11, 61-3 (1953). Scintillation spectrometer in radiochemical analysis. ( 2 5 5 ) Kahn, AI., Freedman, A. J.. Feltham, R. D., Lark, 3.L., Ibid.. 13, S o . 5, 58-60 (1955). Counting techniques for chlorine-36. ( 2 5 6 ) Kahn, JI., Freedman, A. J., Shults, C. G., Ibid., 12, S o . 7, i2-5 (1954). Distillation of “carrier-free” iodine-131 activity. (257) Kahn, AI., Wahl, -A. C., J . Chem. Phys. 21, 1185-9 (1953). Chemical behavior of iodine at low concentrations. C 508-9 ~ T . (1954); A n a l . Abstr. 1, (258) Kallee, E . , Iilin. V O C ~32, 2788 (1954). Iodine-131-marked insulin. Application and limitations of detection method. (259) Kaplan, L., Kilzbach, K. E., ASAL. CHEX.26, 1797-8 (1954). Lithium isotope determination by neutron activation. (260) Karnovsky, 11. L., Foster. J. &I., Gidez, L. I., Hagerman, D. D., Robinson, C. V.,Solomon, A. K., Villee, C. A., Ibid., 27,
751 852-4 (1955). Correction factors for comparing activities of different carbon-14-labeled compounds assayed in flow proportional counter. (261) Kats, J., Abraham, S., Baker, N., Ibid., 26, 1503-4 (1954). Analytical procedures using combined combustion-diffusion vessel; improved method for combustion of organic compounds in aqueous solution. (262) Katz, J., Abraham, S., Chaikoff, I. L., Ibid., 27, 155-6 (1955). Analytical procedures using combined combustion-diffusion vessel; degradation of carbon-14-labeled lactate and acetate. (263) Katz, J., Chaikoff, 1. L., J . Biol. Chem. 206, 887-900 (1954). Chromatographic radioautographic method for studying acetate utilization in animal tissue. (264) Kelley, G. G., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 66 ( U S I ) (1955). Methods of pulse analysis. (265) Keneshea, F. J., Jr., Saul, 8.LI., Sucleonics 11, KO.11. 26-30 (1953). Contribution of chemical element to fisPion-product beta activity. (266) Kimura, K., Saito, N., Kakihana, H , Ishimori. T., J . Chem. Soc. J a p a n , Pure Chem. Sect. 74, 305-8 (1953): Chem. Abstr. 47, 9850 (1953). Separation of antimony from tin by ion exchange resin. (.2 6 7.) Kimura. K., Saito. N., Tachibana, T., Osawa, J., Shibata. 0.. J a p a n Analyst 2, 92-6 (1953); Anal. Abstr. 2, 1438 (1955). Preparation of material for measurement of radioactivity. ANAL.CHEM.25, 1238-41 (1953). Radium de(268) Kirby, H. W., termination by alpha counting. (269) Ibid., 26, 1063-71 (1954). Decay and growth tables for naturally occurring radioactive series. (270) Ibid., p. 1513. Decay and growth tablee for naturally occurring radioactive series, correction. (271) Kirby, H. TV., Kremer, D. A., Ibid., 27, 298-9 (1955). Simplified procedure for computing growth of radioactive decay products. (272) Kittel, J. H., Sucleonics 13, Yo. 3, 70-2 (1955). Scintillation spectrometer for determining uranium burnup. (273) Klein, J . R . , Bianchi, P., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. BNL-1943 (1954); Suclear Sci. Abstr. 8 , 6416 (1954). Preparation of radioactive iron from tissue for assay of activity. (274) Kleinberg, J., et al., U. S . Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. LA-1566 (February 1953); iyuclear Sci. Abstr. 7, 5944 (1953). Collected radiochemical procedures. (275) Kleinberg, J., et al., U. S.Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. LA-1721 (September 1954); .Vuclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 876 (1955). Collected radiochemical procedures. (276) Koch, H. TV.,Foote, R. S.,.VucZeonics 12, S o . 3, 51-3 (1954). Total-absorption x-ray spectrometry; application to betatron experiments. (277) Kohman, T. P., Saito, K., A n n . Rec. Suclear Sci., 4, 401-62 (1954). Radioactivity in geology and cosmology. (278) Iiohn, A., Chinzie et Industrie. 71, 69-77 (1954). Radioactive method for determination of tantalum in ferroniobium and niobium ores. (279) Iiohn, A., Compt. rend. 236, 1419-21 (1953). Radioactive technique for determination of tantalum in ferroniobium and niobium minerals. (280) Iiosta, L., Slocen. Acad. Sci. Arts (Ljubljai~a)1, 12-22 (1953); Anal. Abstr. 2, 74 (1955). Cranium determination in low grade ores. (281) Kraus. K. A . , lfoore, G. E., J . 9 m . Chem. SOC. 75, 1460-2 (1953). Anion exchange studies. Divalent transition elements manganese to zinc in hydrochloric acid. (282) Ibid., 77, 1383-4 (1955). Anion exchange studies. Separation of protactinium and iron by anion exchange in HC1-HF solutions. (283) Kraus, K. A , , Selson, F.. International Conference on Peaceful Uses of ltomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 837 (US.%) (1955). Anion exchange studies of fission products. (284) Kraus, K. A., Xelson, F., J . Am. C‘heni. SOC.76, 984-7 (1954). Anion exchange studies. Ion exchange in concentrated electrolytes. Gold(II1) in hydrochloric acid solutions. (285) Kraus, K. A., Xelson, F., Clough, F. B., Carlston, R. C., Ibid., 77, 1391 (1955). Anion exchange studies. Adsorption from 1PLhiuni chloride solutions. (286) Kraus, K . A,, Xelson, F., ,\loore, G. E., Ibid., 77,3972-7 (1955). Anion exchange studies. ;\Iolybdenum(S’I), tungsten(T’I), and uranium(V1) in HCl and HC1-HF solutions. (287) Kraus, K . -4..Kelson, F., Smith, G. TV., J . P h y s . Chem. 58, 11-17 (1954). Anion exchange studies. Adsorbability of a number of metals in hydrochloric acid solutions. (288) Krebs, -4.T., Science 122, 17-18 (1955). Early history of scintillation counter.
752 (289) Krumholz, L. A., Emmons, A. H., J . Wildlife Management 17, 45G9 (1953); Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 8, 1964 (1954). Preparation of fish tissues for gross beta radioassay. (290) Kunin, R., McGarvey, F., I n d . Eng. Chem. 47, 565-75 (1955). Ion exchange. (291) Kuroda, P. K., Yokoyama, Y., ANAL.CHEX 25, 832-5 (1953). Determination of thoron in mineral wateIs. (292) l b i d . , 26, 1509-11 (1964). Determination of short-lived decay products of radon in natural waters. (293) Kvamme, E., Hellman, L., Ibid., 26, 1995-7 (1954). Isolation of pyruvic and a-ketoglutaric acids from blood and tissues in presence of carbon-14 acetate. (294) Lambert, J. LI.,Roecker, J. H., Pescatore, J. J., Segura, G., Stigman, S., ,Vucleonics 12, No, 2, 40-2 (1954). How to prepare and use radioactive soils. (295) Laporte, AI., J. phys. radium 15, 705-13 (1954) ; Nuclear Sei. Abstr. 9, 712 (1955). Kew method of studying radioactive phenomena: kinetic nucleography. (296) Laurent, H., Simonnin, P., J . phys. radium 14, 294-8 (1953); Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 7, 4355 (1953). Preparation of arsenic76 by Szilard effect beginning with cacodylic acid. (297) Leboeuf, AI. B., Miller, D. G., Connally, R. E., *Vucleonics 12, No. 8, 18-21 (1954) ; HW-30543. Gamma absorptiometry, new tool for analytical chemistry. (298) Leddicotte, G. W., Mahiman, H. A , , International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 117 (USA) (1955). Determination of microgram and submicrogram quantities of thorium by neutron activation analysis. (299) Leddicotte, G. W., Reynolds, S. A , , A S T M Bull., Yo. 188, 2931 (1953). Determination of trace elements by neutron radioactivation analysis. (300) Leddicotte, G. TY.. Reynolds, 8.d.,U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. AECD-3489, ORNL-1443 (January 1953); Suclear Sei. Abstr. 7, 1611 (1953). Neutron activation analysis. for determination of trace elements. (301) Leddicotte, G. W.,Reynolds, S. A , U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. ORNL-1623 (October 1953); Nuclear Sei. Abstr. 8, 1527 (1954). Determination of alkali metals by neutron activation analysis. (302) Lederer, SI., Anal. Chim. Acta8, 134-9 (1953). Paper chromatography of inorganic ions. Preparation of carrier-free isotopes by paper chromatography. (303) Ibid., 11, 145-8 (1954). Separation of lanthanum and actinium by continuous paper electrophoresis. (304) Ibid., pp. 524-7. Paper chromatography of inorganic ions. Separation of phosphorus cations. (305) Ibid., pp. 528-9. Paper chromatography of inorganic ions. Preparation of carrier-free cesium-131. (306) Ibid., 12, 146-50 (1955). Paper chromatography of inorganic ions, Study of rhenium, technetium, and other nonmetals. (307) Lederer, hI., Chemistry & Industru, KO.48, 1481 (1954). Paper electrophoresis of inorganic substances. Separation of acids in dilute hydrochloric acid as electrolyte. (308) Lemmon, R. l l , , Nucleonics 11, S o . 10, 44-5 (1953). Radiation decomposition of carbon-14-labeled compounds. (309) Lerch, P., Keukomm, S., Schweiz. med. Wochschr. 84, 515-18 (19,544,; A n a l . Abstr. 1, 2310 (1954). Measurement of radioactivity of substances separated by chromatography and by electrophoresis. (310) Lewis, IT. B., Sucleonics 12, S o . 10, 30-3 (1954). Isotope production, how to choose irradiation time. (311) Ibid., 13, KO.10, 82-8 (1955). Flux perturbations by material under irradiation. (312) Libby, W. F., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. ATI133901 (December 1951); Suclear Sei. Abstr. 8, 2937 (1954). Sensitive radiation detection techniques for tritium, natural radioactivities, and gamma radiation. (313) Lima, F. W., Ax.4~.CHEX.25, 1924-5 (1953). Calculation of amount of tracer carried with precipitates of radioactive parent. (314) Lindner, Al., compiler, U. S.Atomic Energy Comission, Rept. UCRL-4377 (August 1954); Suclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 2634 (1955). Radiochemical procedures in use a t University of California Radiation Laboratory (Livermore). (315) Lindner, R., 2 . Saturforsch. 9a, 798 (1954). Attempt to separate calcium isotopes by radiometric adsorption analysis. (31G) Lochett, E. E., Thomas, R. H., Sucleonics 11, No. 3, 14-17 (1953). Half lives of several radioisotopes. (317) Loevinger, R., Feitelberg, 6 . . Zbid.. 13, No. 4, 42-5 (1955). Using bremsstrahlung detection by scintillator for simplified beta counting. (318) Loevinger, R., Feitelberg, S., Radiology 64, 116-17 (1955). Assay of phosphorus-32 by bremsstrahlen counting with a well-type scintillation crystal.
Vucleonics, “Manual of Nuclear Instrumentation,” (1955), Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 9 , 5123 (1955). (385) Sucleonics 11, S o . 11, D l - D i 3 (1953); 12, S o . 11, D1-D79 (1954); 13, S o . 11. D1-D89 (1955). Buyers’ guide. (386) Ibid., 12, KO.3, 13-56 (1954). Scintillation counting today. (387) Ibid., KO.4, pp. 7-16. Research reactors. (388) Ibid., No. 10, p. 72. Industrial applications. (389) Ibid., No. 11. pp. 35-100. Hot labs, a special report. (390) Ibid., KO.12, p. 64. Beta-gage performance. (391) Ibid., p. 65. Radioisotope rersatility. (392) Ibid., 13, Yo. 1, 68 (1955). Technical advances, technetium98. (393) Ibid., No. 2, pp. 86-8. Commercial film-badge services. (394) Ibid., No. 4, pp. 86-8. Radioactive dust from nuclear detonation. (395) Ibid., KO. 5, pp. S4-6. Portable radiation-shielding materials. (396) Ibid., Xo. 9, pp. 51-3. Research reactors. (397) Ibid., p. 9, 60. Distribution coefficients of uranium, plutonium, and fission products. (398) Ibid., No. 10. p. 89. Sources of background in S a 1 counting. (399) Ibid., p. 90. dvailability of Geneva conference reports. (400) Kumerof, P., Sassaman, H. L., Rodgers, A., Schaefer, A. E., J . -Vutrition 55, 13-21 (1955); A n a l . Abstr. 2, 1948 (1955). Use of radioactive phosphorus in assay of vitamin D. (401) Oak Ridge National Laboratory. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Co., P. 0. Box E, Oak Ridge, Tenn., “Isotopes, Radioactive and Stable,” Catalog, 1952. (402) Odeblad, E., Acta Radiol. 43, 310-12 (1955). hpproximate formulas describing transmission and absorption of beta rays. (403) Odeblad, E., S a t i , G.. Ibid., 43, 249-55 (1955). Detection of beryllium by Beg(a,ny)C*Zreaction. (404) O’Kelley, G. D., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. MTA-31 (December 1952); A’uclear Sei. Abstr. 7, 4859 (1953). Scintillation spectrometer for routine use. (405) O’Kelley, G. D.. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. MTA-39 (October 1953); Nuclear Sci. Abstr. 8, 1621 (1954). Automatic sweep unit for single-channel pulse height analyzers. (406) Orvis, A. L., Albert, 1., Endocrim~loau 56. 218-20 11955): Yuclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 2429 (1955): Gamma counting of radiosodium and radiopotassium in bioassay of aldosterone and related steroids. (407) Osborn, G. H., Analyst 78, 220-1 (1953). Ion exchange resins in analytical chemistry. Application to analysis of insoluble substances. (408) Ibid.,78, 221-52 (1953). Bibliography on analytical auulica__ tions of ion exchange resins. (409) Osipov, A. I.,Kozhevnikov, I. Y.. Iudin, J-. E.. Sazonov, 11.L., Bul’skii, 11.G.. Alimor, -1.G.. Skreptsov. A. 11..Ryabenko. A . P., Zaaodskaya Lab. 21, 391-5 (1955); -4nal. Abstr. 2, 2394 (1955). K e a rapid method of analysis of slag for phosphorus, with radioactive indicator. (410) Osmond, R. G., Smales, 4 . A,, A n a l . Chim. Acta 10, 117-28 (1954). Determination by radioactivation of oxygen content of powdered metals with particular reference to beryllium. (411) Palacios, J., Baptista, d.11.,An. soc. espafi. f i s . ?/ q u i m B50, 275-80 (1954); Anal. -4bstr. 1, 2409 (1954). S e w method for analysis of radioactive material. (412) Pannell, J. H., *Vucleonics 13, S o . 8, 48-9 (1956). Effect of highly radioactive solutions on glass pH electrodes. (413) Parry, R. Y., J . Brit. I n s t . Radio Engrs. 14, 427-32 (1954). Combined beta and dielectric gage. (414) Pate, B. D., Yaffe, L., Can. J . Chem. 33, 610-32 (1955). Disintegration-rate determination by 4-pi counting. (415) Ibid., pp. 929-37. Disintegration-rate determination by 4-pi counting. Source-mount absorption correction. (416) Pauly, J., Compt. rend. 238, 80-2 (1954). Entrainment of potassium by sodium nitrate crystallizing from solution. Radiochemical estimation of sodium in potassium nitrate.
754 (417) Payne, P. R., Done, J., Sature 174, 27-8 (1954). Assay of tritium-labeled substances, combustion bomb method of preparation of gas for counting. (418) Peirson, D. H., Ibid., 173, 990-1 (1954). Two-crystal gammaray scintillation spectrometer. (419) Peppard, D. F., Asanovich, G., dttebery, R. W.,DuTemple, O., Gergel, 31. V., Gnaedinger, 4. W.,Mason, G. W,, Neschke, V. H., Sachtman, E. S., Winsch, I. O., J . Am. Chem. Soc. 75, 4576-8 (1953). Solvent extraction behavior of transition elements. Isolation of gram quantities of thorium-230 (ionium) from pitchblende residue. (420) Perey, AI., hdloff, J., Compt. rend. 239, 1389-91 (1954). Separation of actinium-actinium K (francium-223) by paper chromatography. (421) Peters, J. H., Gutman, H. R., APSAL. CHEnr. 25, 987-8 (1953). Micromethod for measurement of carbon-14-labeled material. (422) Petewon, R. E.. Ibid., 24, 1850-2 (1952). Separation of radioactive iron from biological materials. (423) Petrow, H. G., Ibid., 26, 1514-15 (1954). Radiochemical determination of neodymium, praseodymium, and cerium in fi-:>>ionproducts. (424) Phillips, G., Cornish, F. W ,Brit. Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Rept. AERE-C/R-1276 (November 1953); Suclear Sci. I b s t r . 8 , 1524 (1954). Determination of dysprosium in holmium oxide by radioactivation analysis. (425) Phillips, G., Jenkins. E. N.. Brit. Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Rept. AERE-C/R-1534 (October 1954) ; .VucZear Sci. Abstr. 9, 4244 (1955). Improved methods for routine radiochemical analysis of fission product mixtures. Recognition of radiochemical purity using aluminum absorption curves. (426) Picciotto, E., Yan Styrendael, ll., Compt. rend. 232, 855-7 (1951). 3Iineralogy determination and location of lithium by nuclear reactions in ores. (427) Picciotto, E., Kilgain, S.,-Vature 173, 632-3 (1954). Thorium determination in deep-sea sediments. (428) Pinajian, J. J., Christian, J. E., J . Am. Pharm. Assoc., Sei. Ed. 44, 107-9 (1955). Determination of iodide-iodate activity in sodium radioiodide (iodine-131) by automatic scanning of paper chromatograms. (429) Pinajian, J. J., Christian, J. E., Wright, W.E., Ibid., 42, 301-4 (1953). Isotope dilution procedure of analysis. historical and literature survey. (430) Plumb, R. C., Lewis, J. E., Nucleonics 13, S o . 8 , 42-6 (1955). How to minimize errors in neutron activation analysis. (431) Plumb, R. C., Silverman. R. H., Ibid., 12, KO.12. 29-31 (1954). Activation analysis determines sodium content of aluminum alloys. (432) Pool, 31. L., Iiundu, D. X., “Chart of Atomic Kuclei,” Long’s College Book Co., Columbus, Ohio, 1955. (433) Potrata, H. -%., Barnes, J. W., Lang, E. J., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. LA-1845 (Octoher 1954); .Vuclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 1762 (1955). Radiochemical procedure for thorium and application to determination of ionium in coral limestone. (434) Pouradier, J., Tenet. -A. Ll., Chateau, H., Chim. anal., 35, 125-8 (1953). Radiochemical determination of copper in cellulose esters. (435) Power, T. H., Kirby, H. W.,JIcCluggage, W. C., Selson, G. D., Payne, J. H.. Jr., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. MLM-833 (.%pril 1953); Suclear Sci. Abstr. 8 , 3301 (1954). Separation of radium and barium by ion exchange elution. (436) Price, T. D., Hudson, P. B., ANAL.CHEU.26, 1127-32 (1954). Fluoroscope and Geiger counter for measuring ultraviolet absorption of chromatograms. (437) Price, T. D., Hudson, P. B., Nucleonics 13, No. 3, 54-8 (1955). Specific-activity determination with beta and ultravioletphoton counter. (438) Putman, J. L., Brit. J . Radiol. 23, 46-63 (1950). Absolute measurements of activity of beta emitters. (439) Putman, J. L., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 463 (UK) (1955). Development in thickness gages and allied instruments. (440) Putman, J. L.. Jefferson, S., Ibid., Paper 462 (UK). Application of radioisotopes to leakage and hydraulic problems. (441) Putman, J. L., Solomon, E. W., Yucleonics 13, S o . 1, 71 (1955). Gamma scattering to sort coal from shale. (442) Quimby, 0. T., Nabis, A. J., Lampe, H. W,, ANAL.C H E I I . 26, 661-7 (1954). Determination of triphosphate and pyrophosphate by isotope dilution. (443) Raaen, H. P., Thomason, P. F., Ibid., 27, 936-44 (1955). Radioisotopic study of uranium separation by filterpaper partition chromatography with 2-methyltetrahydrofuran.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (444) Raaen, V. F., Ropp, G. A., Ibid., 25, 174-5 (1953). Precision with vibrating reed electrometer in radioassaying meta- and parasubstituted benzoic-a-carbon-14 acids. (445) Radhakrishna, P., A n a l . Chim. Acta 8 , 140-5(1953). Separation of scandium, lanthanum, and yttrium. (446) Radhakrishna, P., J. chim. phys. 51, 354-7 (1954). Separations of radioelements by ion exchnage. (447) Radioactive Products, Inc., Detroit, Slirh., “Xuclidentifier, Punched-Card Classification of the Suclides,” revised 1954. (448) Rediske, J. H., Palmer, R. F., Cline, J. F , ANAL.CHEX 27, 849-50 (1955). Assay of iron-55 and iron-59 in biological samples. (449) Reiffel, L., Nucleonics 13, No. 3, 2 2 4 (1955). Beta-rayexcited low-energy x-ray sources. (450) Reiffel. L., Humphreys, R. F., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 156 (US.4) (1955). Beta-ray-excited x-ray sources. (451) Reineke, E . P..J . Dairu Sci. 37, 1227-32 (1954); Anal. Abstr. 2, 736 (1956). Thyroxine content of thyroactive iodinated proteins as determined by radioactive-isotope dilution technique. (452) Reynolds, AT. B., Nucleonics 13, S o . 5, 54-6 (1955). Techniques for counting radiokrypton. (453) Reynolds, S.A, Brookshank, W. A, Jr.. Ibid., 11, No. 11,46-7 (1953). Thallium-204 as standard for radioassays. (454) Riedel, O., Ibid., 12, S o . 6, 64-7 (1954). Statistical purity in nuclear counting. (455) Rietjens, L. H. Th., Arkenbout. G. J., ‘A‘olters, G. F., Iiluyver. J. C., Physica 21, 110-16 (195g) Influence of distance between source and crystal on detection efficiency of gammascintillation spectrometer. (456) Robbins. 31. C., Eutsler, B C.. lIillipan, Lf. F., U. S. Atomic Energy Comniisrion, Rept. LA-1904 (April 1955); Y u c l e a r Sci. Abstr. 9, 5257 (1955). Determination of polonium in urine. (457) Rodden, C. J., AXAL. CHEW25, 1598-601 (1953). Analytical chemistry of uranium. (458) Roehrich-Goussu, O., J . phys. radium 15, 714-15 (1964): .\‘uclear Sci. Abstr. 9, 713 (1955). 3Ieasurement of activity of alpha emitters by kinetic nucleography. (459) Rogers, S . E., Watrous, R. I f . , U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Rept. MLM-967 (April 1954); ArucZear Sci. Abstr. 9, 2671 (1955). Radiochemical separation of actinium and daughters by lead sulfate. (460) Rosen, F. D., Davis, W., Jr., Rev. Sci. Instr. 24, 349-54 (1953). Absolute beta-counting of gases containing phosphorus-32 using end-window Geiger-Muller tubes. (461) Rosenthal. D . J., Anger, H. O., Ibid.,25, 6 7 0 4 (1954). Liquid scintillation counting of tritium and carbon-14-labeled compounds. (462) Rosholt. J. N., Jr., ANAL.CHEII. 26, 1307-11 (1954). Quantitative radiochemical method for determination of major sources of natural radioactivity in ores and minerals. (463) Roucayrol, J., Oberhausen, E., Compt. Tend. 237, 1680-2 (1953); Nuclear Sci. Abstr 8 , 2554 (1954). Yew technique for measuring activity of compounds labeled n-ith soft beta emitters. (464) Rouser, G., Hahn, P. F., J . Am. Chem. SOC.74, 2398 (1962). Separation of radioisotope- of silver and palladium. (465) Rudstam, S. G., A-ucleonics 13, No. 2, 64-6 (1955). Preparing samples for absolute counting. (466) Rupp, A. F., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 314 (US-%) (1955). Large scale production of radioisotopes. (467) RUDD,A. F., Binford, F. T., J . A p p l . Phys. 24, 1069-81 (1953). Production of radioisotopes. (468) Rushman, D. F., J . Oil Colour Chemists’ Assoc. 36, 352-72 (1953); A n a l . Abstr. 1, 326 (1954). Radiochemistryinpaint research. (469) Sacks, J., “Isotopic Tracers in Biochemistry and Physiology,” 1IcGraw-Hill. New York, 1953. (470) Salmon, L., Brit. Atomic Energy Research Establishment. Rept. AERE-C/M-206 (May 1954); ,\-ucZear Sci. Abstr. 9, 874 (1955). Analytical aspects of gamma spectroscopy. (471) Balutsky, h l . L , Kirby, H. W., ANAL.CHEM. 26, 1140-2 (1954). Preparation of carrier-free lanthanum-140. (472) . , Ibad.. 27. 567-9 (1955). Preparation and half life of carrier-free yttrium-90. (473) Salutsky. 32. L., Stites, J. G., Jr., Martin, A. W., Ibid., 25, 1677-81 (1953). Fractionation of barium-radium mixtures as chromates by precipitation from homogeneous solution. (474) Samarin, A. M.,International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 707 (USSR) (1955). Use of artificially radioactive isotopes in study of processes of production of steel and iron. ~I
755
V O L U M E 28, NO. 4, A P R I L 1 9 5 6 (475) Samsahl, K., Taugbol, K., Ibid., Paper 886 (Norway).
Separation of carrier-free isotopes by diffusion methods. (476) Sato, T. R., Kisieleski, FV. E., Norris, W. P., Strain, H. H., ANAL. CHEY. 25, 4 3 8 4 6 (1953). Electrochromatographic separations of calcium and phosphate ions; factors influencing separations. (477) Sato, T. R., Norris, W. P., Strain, H. H., Ibid., 26, 267-71 (1954). Electrochromatographic sequences. (478) Saric, P., Cvjeticanin, D. K., Bull. I n s t . LVucZear Sci., "Boris Kidrich" (Belgrade) 4 , 21-3 (1954); LVucelar Sci. Sbstr. 9, 909 (1955). Separation of radium from natural products by paper chromatography. (479) Sax, K. I., Gabay, J J., Kevinson, D., Keisch, B.. C. 9. .Itonlie Energy Cornmiasion, Rept. NYO-4604 (September 1954) ; Nvclear Sei. Abstr. 9 , 534 (1955). Analysis for long-lived products in soil. (480) Scadden, E. I I . , Ballou, X. E., ASIL. CHEM. 25, 1602-4 (195H). Solvent extraction separations of zirconium and niobium. (481) Schayer. R. W., Kobayashi, Y., Smiley, R . L., Wu, K. Y. T., J . Bid. Chem. 212, 593-8 (1955). Determination of histamine as isotopic derivative. (482) Scheel, IC. C.. Angew. Chem. 6 6 , 102-6 (1954). Rapid determination of potassium in potassium salts by measurements of radiation. (483) Schmeiser, K., Jerchel. D., Ibid., 65, 490-1 (1953). Seutronactivation deterinination of phosphorus in paper electrophorograms. (484) Schwebel. A , Isbell. H. S., Rloyer, J. D., J . Research S a t l . Bur. Standa,.ds 53, 221-4 (1954) ; NBS-2837. Determination of carbon-14 in solutions of carbon-14-labeled materials by proportional counter. (485) Schweitser, G. Ii.,Bomar, A I . R., J . A m . Chern. SOC.77, 4528-31 (1955). Studies in low concentrations chemiatry. ddsorption of sulfate and scandium ions. (488) Schn-eiteer, G. K., Jackson, W.AX., Ibid., 74, 4178-80 (1952). Studies in low concentration chemistry. Hadiocolloidal properties of lanthanum-140. (487) Scott, R. G., Stannard, J. X., U. S. Atomic Energy Comniission, Rept. UR-235 (March 1953); A h c l e a r Sci. Abstr. 7, 4559 (1953). Nodified procedure for determinatioii of polonium-210 in biological materials. (488) Seaborg, G. T., Katz, J. J., "Acsinide Elements," ;\IcGran-Hill. Kew York, 1954. (489) Sear, €I., Sucleonics 1 1 , KO.4 , 52-3 (1953). Presenting liquid samples t o flat surface of a scintillation crystal. (490) Seliger, H. H., Schwebel, A., Ibid., 12, KO.7, 54-63 (1954). Standardization of beta-emitting nuclides. (491) Seligman, H., Angew. Chem. 66, 9.59 (1954). Recovery of radioactive isotopes in pile. (492) Seligman, H., International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 395 (UK) (1955). Recent developments of radioisotopes used in industry. (493) Serrano, E. S., Ssntos. I. L., Inform. pulm. anal. (Madrid) 7 , 43-50 (1953); Anal. Abstr. 1 , 239 (1954). Rlicrodetermination of potassium with radioactive cobaltinitrite. (494) Setter, L. R., Goldin, A. S., Kader, J. S., ANAL.CHEX. 26, 1304-8 (1954). Radioactivity assay of water and industrial wastes with internal proportional counter. (495) Seyfang, A. P., Analyst 80, 74-6 (1955). Improvement in deterinination of uranium-235 by radioactivation. (496) Seyfang. A. P., Smales, A. A, Ibid., 78, 394-405 (1953). Determination of uranium-235 in mixtures of naturally occurring uranium isotopes by radioactivation. (497) Shandley, P. D., U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. Rept. UR-255 (April 1953); IYuclear Sci. Abstr. 7 , 4341 (1953). Radium content of common foods. (498) Sham, E. N., J . Brit. Inst. Radio Engrs. 14, 414-18 (1954); Wuclear Sci. Abstr. 8, 7093 (1954). Alpha gage. (499) Sherman, H., Heirtsler, J. R., J . Sei. I n d . Research I n d i a A12, 370-2 (1953); A n a l . Abstr. 1 , 872 (1954). Long-life Geiger counters. (500) Siegbahn, I(.. ed., "Beta- and Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy," Interscience, S e w York, 1955. (501) Sittkus, A., Ganz, D., Remy, E., 2. Saturforsch. A8, 317-22 (1953). Radioactive background radiation and its effect. (502) Smales, A. A . , Analyst 77, 778-89 (1952). Determination of small quantities of uranium in rocks and minerals by radioactivation. (503) Smales, A. A., Atomics 4 , 55-63 (1953). Scope of radioactiration analysis. (504) Smales, A. A, International Conference on Peaceful Uses of .%tomic Energy, Geneva, Paper 766 (CK), (1955). Determination of trace impurities in liquid metal coolants by radioartivntion methods.
(505) Ibid., Paper 770 (UK). (506) (507)
(508) (509) (510) (511) (512) (513)
(514) (515) (516) (517) (518)
(519)
(520) (521) (522) (523) (524) (525) (526) (527) (528) (529)
(530) (531) (532) (533) (534)
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