Article pubs.acs.org/Langmuir
Polymer/Ordered Mesoporous Carbon Nanocomposite Platelets as Superior Sensing Materials for Gas Detection with Surface Acoustic Wave Devices Pei-Hsin Ku,† Chen-Yun Hsiao,† Mei-Jing Chen,‡ Tai-Hsuan Lin,‡ Yi-Tian Li,‡ Szu-Chieh Liu,§ Kea-Tiong Tang,§ Da-Jeng Yao,‡ and Chia-Min Yang*,† †
Department of Chemistry, ‡Institute of NanoEngineering and MicroSystem, and §Department of Electrical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan S Supporting Information *
ABSTRACT: We have prepared nanocomposites of polymers and platelet CMK-5like carbon and have demonstrated their superior performance for gravimetric gas detection. The zirconium-containing platelet SBA-15 was used as hard template to prepare CMK-5-like carbon, which was then applied as a lightweight and highsurface-area scaffold for the growth of polymers by radical polymerization. Mesoporous nanocomposites composed of four different polymers were used as sensing materials for surface acoustic wave devices to detect ppm-level ammonia gas. The sensors showed much better sensitivity and reversibility than those coated with dense polymer films, and the sensor array could still generate a characteristic pattern for the analyte with a concentration of 16 ppm. The results show that the nanocomposite sensing materials are promising for highly sensitive gravimetric-type electronic nose applications.
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INTRODUCTION Ordered mesoporous materials with high surface area, large pore volume, and uniform mesopores have attracted much attention.1−8 Among them, ordered mesoporous carbons (OMCs)9−28 have been made to exhibit high electric and thermal conductivities, low density, and good chemical as well as mechanical stability and have been extensively applied for energy-related devices, as sorbents for separation and storage, and as catalyst supports. OMCs can be prepared by replication from preformed mesoporous “hard templates”9−24 or by selfassembly of carbon precursors with amphiphilic “soft templates” followed by condensation and carbonization.21−28 The OMC materials prepared via both templating routes are highly microporous in the frameworks.9−12 In general, the hardtemplate pathway provides high degree of versatility for the control over textural and morphological properties of OMCs. For example, CMK-3 is an OMC prepared by volume templating from mesoporous silica SBA-15 and has a hexagonally ordered array of interconnected carbon nanorods.11 The morphology of CMK-3 is determined by that of SBA-15, as exemplified by the preparation of rod-shaped CMK3 material with rod-shaped SBA-15.29 Moreover, by surface templating instead of volume templating from SBA-15, CMK-5 composed of interconnected carbon nanopipes arranged in a hexagonal pattern can be also prepared.12−15 We herein report a promising application of OMCs in array types of gas detection or electronic noses.30−34 An electronic nose is an artificial olfactory system that uses an array of broadly cross-reactive gas sensors, in which each analyte gas © 2012 American Chemical Society
elicits a response from all the sensors and each sensor responds to a collection of analyte gases. The collective response of sensor array produced upon exposure to a gas is then transmitted and is analyzed by pattern recognition methods to identify and quantify the gas.35,36 The sensing materials for electronic noses need to be semiselective to analyte gas in order to have a compromise between selectivity and reversibility of the sensors.30−34 For surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors, a type of gravimetric sensors that is highly promising for portable electronic noses because of its high sensitivity, low cost, and small size,34,37−39 dense polymer films are often employed as versatile sensing materials.34,37,38 During gas detection, analyte molecules are adsorbed on polymer surface and then dissolved into the film. The equilibrium analyte concentration in a polymer film, which corresponds to the maximum weight change for the gravimetric detection, is determined by the solubility and partial pressure of the analyte.40 However, as schematically shown in Figure 1a, the adsorption and desorption of analyte molecules are much faster than their diffusion in polymer film, and the adsorption−desorption equilibrium at the film interface is established much before the equilibrium concentration is reached.40 For the detection of low-concentration analyte gases, the situation gets even worse, and practically the equilibrium concentration may never be reached within limited detection time. This may result in poor Received: April 18, 2012 Revised: July 17, 2012 Published: July 26, 2012 11639
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immense promise in applying the polymer/PMC nanocomposites in gravimetric sensor-based electronic noses.
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EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Materials Synthesis. PMS materials were synthesized by adding tetraethoxysilane (TEOS, Acros) or tetramethoxysilane (TMOS, Acros) into the HCl solution of triblock copolymer Pluronic P123 (Sigma-Aldrich) and ZrOCl2·8H2O (Acros).42 The molar composition was 1:0.017:0.05:5.9:193 silane:P123:ZrOCl2·8H2O:HCl:H2O. The reaction mixture was stirred at 35 °C for 0.25−30 min before being aged at 90 °C for 24 h. The solid was filtered, dried, and finally calcined at 540 °C. For the preparation of PMC, furfuryl alcohol (FA, Aldrich) was chosen as a carbon source.20,21,23 Typically, 0.5 g of PMS was impregnated with 0.9 mL of FA and was then heated at 105 °C for 2 h. Subsequently, the mixture was heated at 900 °C in a nitrogen atmosphere for 3 h. The silica template was dissolved by diluted HF solution. The polymer/PMC nanocomposites were prepared by radical polymerization.41 PMC was impregnated with a chloroform solution of a mixture of a vinyl monomer, divinylbenzene (Alfa) as a cross-linker, and 2,2′-azobis(isobutyronitrile) (Showa) as a radial initiator with a molar ratio of 1:0.25:0.05. The polymerization reaction was initiated by heating the sample at 120 °C under an argon atmosphere. The resultant nanocomposite was extensively washed with chloroform and ethanol, followed by drying at ambient conditions. The monomers used included N-vinylpyrrolidone (Acros), 4-vinylpyridine (Acros), styrene (Acros), and 4-tertbutoxystyrene (Aldrich), and the resulting nanocomposites are those containing poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) (PNVP/PMC), poly(4-vinylpyridine) (P4VP/PMC), polystyrene (PS/PMC), and poly(4-tertbutoxystyrene) (P4BS/PMC). Characterization. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images were taken using a JEOL JEM-2010 microscope operated at 200 kV equipped with an energy dispersion spectrometer (EDS). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were obtained on a JEOL JSM-6330F microscope. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were recorded on a Mac Science 18MPX diffractometer using Cu Kα radiation. Nitrogen physisorption isotherms were measured at 77 K using a Quantachrome Autosorb-1MP instrument. The isotherms were analyzed by the nonlocal density functional theory (NLDFT) method44−46 with the model of nitrogen adsorbed on silica with cylindrical pores considering the adsorption branch to evaluate pore sizes of the samples.47 The Brunauer−Emmett−Teller (BET) surface areas were calculated from the adsorption branches in the relative pressure range of 0.05−0.20, and the total pore volumes were evaluated at a relative pressure of 0.95. Inductively coupled plasmamass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) data were obtained using a Perkin-Elmer SCIEX-ELAN 5000 device. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed using a Linseis STA PT1600 analyzer. Gas Detection. The LiNbO3-based SAW devices, each of which was integrated with a interdigital transducer and a signal readout system,38 were deposited with sensing materials by spin-coating using ethanol as a solvent. Each SAW device exhibited a central frequency of around 116.2 MHz, and the amount of sensing material deposited on each device was monitored by the SAW frequency shift (Δfs) after the coating. Gas sensing measurements were performed in a 1 L chamber at 24 °C and a relative humidity (RH) of 21%. Laboratory air was first passed over the SAW sensor for 30 min to ensure stable SAW frequency signals. Subsequently, a stream of NH3 gas (Jing De Gases, Taiwan) with calibrated concentration was passed through the sensor for 100−200 s followed by 120−300 s of air flow to allow the sensor to recover to its initial frequency value. The procedure was repeated for 3−5 times for each measurement. The flow rate was kept 1 L min−1 during the measurements.
Figure 1. Schematic comparison of the gas sensing processes with (a) a dense polymer film and (b) a polymer/OMC nanocomposite, involving the (i) adsorption and (ii) desorption of gas molecules at polymer surface, and (iii) the molecular diffusion in polymer. The blue color scale represents the concentration of the gas molecules in polymer.
sensitivity and reversibility of gravimetric detection for lowconcentration (e.g., ppm-level) gas. In this report, we suggest and demonstrate polymer/OMC nanocomposites as superior sensing materials for gravimetric gas detection. As shown in Figure 1b, OMC is applied as a high-surface-area, lightweight, and mechanically stable scaffold for the direct growth of polymers,41 resulting in polymers that form interpenetrating, inseparable composite frameworks with carbon. With such a nanoscale design, the mesoporous nanocomposites allow analyte molecules to diffuse into the materials to interact directly with all polymer molecules in them. As a result, the nanocomposites may exhibit better sensitivity and reversibility for gas detection than dense polymer films. In this study, we also developed a preparation of platelet-shaped CMK-5-like OMCs with short carbon nanopipes in order to further facilitate gas diffusion and adsorption. We first improved the zirconium(IV) ion-assisted synthesis of platelet-shaped SBA-15, reported by Chen et al.,42 to prepare thinner and less aggregated platelet-shaped mesoporous silica (PMS) hard template. Without the need to further incorporate other acid catalysts,9,11,12 we then utilized the Zr4+ ions that remained in PMS as acid catalysts to produce well-distributed polymeric carbon precursor that transformed into platelet OMC (PMC) after pyrolysis. Several polymer/ PMC nanocomposites were prepared, and the SAW sensors deposited with the nanocomposites showed high sensitivity and reversibility for the detection of ppm-level ammonia gas. The determination of NH3 is of great interest for environmental monitoring and process control due to the high toxicity of the gas, and the exposure limits as set by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (USA) are 25 ppm over an 8 h period and 35 ppm over a 10 min period.43 The results show
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION We first attempted to improve the reported synthesis42 to make of thinner and less aggregated SBA-15 platelets by changing the 11640
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Figure 2. SEM (a, d) and TEM (b, c, e, f) images of PMS (a−c) and PMC (d−f). The images in (b) and (e) are viewed along the channel axis, and those in (c) and (f) are taken perpendicular to the channel axis.
silica precursor and the duration of stirring (for mixing all the reactants). With TEOS as silica precursor and stirring time of 30 min,42 one obtained SBA-15 platelets that are around 0.5 μm thick and 1.0 μm wide, most of which were aggregated and intergrown (cf. the SEM image in Figure S1a of the Supporting Information). The XRD pattern of the sample shows three peaks that can be indexed as 10, 11, and 20 reflections of a p6mm mesostructure (cf. Figure S2). When TMOS instead of TEOS was used, the hexagonal platelets became thinner (∼0.2 μm) and wider (∼2.0 μm) (cf. Figure S1b). If the stirring time was further shortened, the amount of aggregated and intergrown platelets could be reduced (cf. Figure S1c). Under optimum conditions (with TMOS as silica precursor and stirring time of 1 min), the PMS sample mainly contained thin and separate platelets as shown in Figure 2a. The results could be realized by considering the formation mechanism of platelet SBA-15.42 In the presence of Zr4+ ions, faster hydrolysis of TMOS, as compared to TEOS, may result in quicker silicate condensation around the ends of the copolymer micellar rods, leading to earlier termination of the growth of platelet SBA-15. Furthermore, when the stirring time is shortened while still allowing TMOS to be hydrolyzed and dissolved in the synthesis solution, the platelets may be grown under static condition to prevent interconnection between platelets. The PMS synthesized under optimum conditions was applied as hard template for PMC. Figure 2b,c shows the TEM images of the calcined PMS, and the hexagonal arrangement of the channel-type mesopores can be clearly visualized. The unit cell parameter of the p6mm mesostructure derived from XRD (cf. Figure 3a) is 11.0 nm, and the mesopore diameter estimated from its nitrogen physisorption isotherm (cf. Figure 3b) is 7.6 nm. The sharp step with H1-type hysteresis loop in the isotherm corresponds to the filling of uniform mesopores with open cylindrical geometry. ICP-MS revealed a zirconium-to-silicon (Zr/Si) ratio of 0.041 for the PMS, suggesting that around 80% of the Zr4+ ions originally added in the synthesis mixture remained in PMS. We found that the Zr4+ species could serve as acid catalyst to catalyze the polymerization of FA that was impregnated into PMS. Actually, zirconia and Zr-incorporated mesoporous silicas have been shown to exhibit Lewis acidity48−50 and can catalyze various reactions including the Friedel−Crafts alkylation of aromatics.49 After pyrolysis, the resulting carbon/silica composite (des-
Figure 3. XRD patterns (a) and nitrogen physisorption isotherms (b) of PMS, C/PMS, and PMC. The inset in (b) shows the pore size distributions of the three samples.
ignated as C/PMS) and the pure-carbon PMC material, obtained by removing silica template by HF, retained ordered mesostructure and gave XRD patterns that could be indexed with a p6mm lattice. The fact that the unit cell parameters for C/PMS and PMC are nearly identical to that for PMS indicates that the material experienced very little shrinkage during pyrolysis. The results suggest that the Zr4+-catalyzed polymer11641
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distribution (cf. inset in Figure 3b) with the maxima corresponding to the inner diameter of carbon nanopipes (∼5.0 nm) and the pores formed between the adjacent nanopipes (∼3.7 nm). Controlled amounts of selected vinyl monomers, divinylbenzene, and 2,2′-azobis(isobutyronitrile) were impregnated into PMC, and the monomers were subsequently polymerized with heating to form polymer/PMC nanocomposites.41 The nanocomposites had polymer loadings of around 38−42 wt %, determined by TGA, and exhibited high surface areas (940− 1080 m2 g−1), large pore volumes (0.86−0.98 cm3 g−1), and relatively uniform mesoporosity (cf. Figure S4 for their nitrogen physisorption isotherms and Table S1). The pore sizes decreased by about 0.3−0.4 nm as compared to those of PMC. The nanocomposites were deposited on the integrated SAW sensors38 for the detection of ppm-level NH3 gas.43 Figure 5a shows the response curves of the SAW sensor
ization of FA produced sufficient and well-distributed polymeric species in the mesopores. Interestingly, C/PMS also exhibits a step with H1-type hysteresis loop in its nitrogen physisorption isotherm at lower relative pressure regime (between P/P0 = 0.5 and 0.7), indicating the presence of relatively uniform channeltype mesopores with diameter of around 5.0 nm. It suggests that most of the carbonaceous species were coated on the mesopores of PMS to form pipelike hollow structure in the composite. Indeed, the electron microscopy images of PMC show that the platelet-shaped material mainly consisted of hexagonally arranged carbon nanopipes that are parallel to the thickness direction of the platelet (cf. Figure 2). Interestingly, TEM images of the CMK-5-like material also reveal that some of the nanopipes are either defective or absent and a few carbon nanorods are formed. Probably because of these textural features, an inverse intensity ratio of the 10 and 11 reflections, a phenomenon typically observed for CMK-5 materials with thin carbon wall thickness,12−15 is not seen in the XRD pattern of PMC (cf. Figure 3a). We found that the textural features of PMC may be associated with the distribution of the Zr4+ ions in PMS. Dark-field TEM images (cf. Figure S3), and EDS analysis showed that while most part of the sample exhibited fairly constant Zr/Si ratio, the Zr4+ ions were more concentrated in a few channels. As schematically represented in Figure 4, the
Figure 5. Response curves of the SAW sensors deposited with PNVP/ PMC (a) or PNVP (b) to 16 ppm NH3.
deposited with PNVP/PMC for three successive exposures to 16 ppm NH3 at 24 °C and a RH of 21%. The SAW frequency decreased immediately upon exposure to the analyte, and a frequency shift (Δf) of around 445 Hz was observed after 180 s. After the first exposure, replacement of the analyte with air increased the frequency to a level, within around 150 s, that was roughly maintained in subsequent recoveries from successive exposures to NH3. The frequency shift was highly reproducible, and a standard deviation of ∼44 Hz was found for successive exposures. The response was attributed to the interactions between NH3 and PNVP in PNVP/PMC, and PMC alone could not adsorb the analyte to give detectable Δf, as confirmed in a control experiment. The relatively rapid and reproducible response to such a dilute NH3 suggests that the polymer molecules in PNVP/PMC indeed interacted directly with NH3 molecules to rapidly establish the adsorption−desorption equilibrium. For comparison, we also fabricated the PNVPcoated SAW sensor by spin-coating. As shown in Figure 5b, the sensor exhibited unstable response to 16 ppm NH3: Three successive exposures gave measurable yet divergent values of Δf
Figure 4. Schematic representation of the formation of PMC using Zr4+-containing PMS as hard template.
Zr4+-enriched channels may produce large amount of polymeric species to fill the channels and to transform into carbon nanorods, whereas other channels, depending on the amount and distribution of Zr4+ ions, might be incompletely coated with carbon precursor to result in defects or even absence of carbon nanopipes after pyrolysis and template removal. Consistent with the observed textural features, the nitrogen physisorption isotherm of PMC (cf. Figure 3b) exhibits a relatively wide and two-step hysteresis loop, and the latter step at P/P0 = 0.5 and 0.7 seems to correspond well to the loop previously observed for C/PMS. Analyses of the isotherm indicate that PMC has high surface area (1720 m2 g−1), large pore volume (1.49 cm3 g−1), and a bimodal pore size 11642
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aforementioned sensing process and probably also with the interference from the adsorption of water in the hydrophilic polymer. Such interference was not obviously observed for PNVP/PMC, which might be probably due to the hydrophobic nature of the carbon scaffold.11−13,51 We further performed ammonia sensing at a RH of 44% and found that whereas PNVP-coated SAW sensor showed a larger standard deviation and worse detection limit of around 24 ppm, PNVP/PMCdeposited sensor exhibited nearly identical sensitivity and reversibility. Further studies on the cross-sensitivity toward water are in progress. Finally, we demonstrated the detection of NH3 under the same conditions (24 °C, RH of 21%) using an array of SAW sensors deposited with four different nanocomposites. We found that all the sensors were more sensitive and exhibited more stable, reversible, and reproducible response than the sensors coated with dense polymer films. Figure 7 represents
(ca. 100−210 Hz), and a slow but steady increase in SAW frequency was observed. We found that while an increase in the amount of PNVP coated on the sensor could not improve the stability and sensitivity of the sensor, a decrease in coating amount resulted in a worse signal-to-noise ratio of the signals. Obviously, the polymer/PMC nanocomposites showed much better sensitivity and reversibility than dense polymer films for gravimetric gas detection. Figure 6a shows the average response of SAW sensors deposited with PNVP/PMC or PNVP to different concen-
Figure 7. Response pattern of 16 ppm NH3 generated by the SAW sensor array with four nanocomposite sensing materials.
Figure 6. Frequency shifts (a) and Δf/Δfs values (b) for the SAW sensors deposited with PNVP/PMC (filled circle) or PNVP (unfilled circle) to ppm-level NH3. Error bars are reported as one standard deviation of the response averaged over eight exposures.
the response pattern of 16 ppm NH3 generated by the SAW sensor array. All the four sensors exhibited detectable but different frequency shifts to such a dilute analyte, thus generating a characteristic fingerprint for NH3. The differences in the response for the four nanocomposites may be correlated to the functional groups of the polymers. PS/PMC and P4BS/ PMC gave very low response mainly because of the lack of significant interactions between the polar analyte molecules and the hydrophobic PS and P4BS polymers. For PNVP/PMC showing the largest frequency shifts among four nanocomposites, the pyrrolidone moiety in PNVP may interact relatively strongly with NH3 through the amide oxygen. For P4VP/PMC, the adsorption interaction between the pyridine group in P4VP and NH3 is weaker than that in the case of PNVP. The results suggest that the polymer/OMC nanocomposites can be superior sensing materials for highly sensitive and reversible gravimetric sensor arrays for electronic nose applications.
trations of NH3 at the same temperature and RH and the results of simple linear regression analysis. The PNVP/PMCdeposited sensor exhibited a linear response to ppm-level NH3 with high sensitivity value (defined as the slope of the regression line, Δf/[NH3]) of 26.2 Hz/ppm. The detection limit of the sensor was below 5 ppm, a concentration much lower than the exposure limits.43 On the other hand, the PNVP-coated sensor had a detection limit of around 12 ppm, and it displayed much smaller frequency shifts (corresponding to a sensitivity value of 7.1 Hz/ppm) and significantly higher standard deviations (77−85 Hz) in the response across eight exposures to the analyte with a concentration below 30 ppm. Furthermore, it has to be mentioned that the amount of deposited PNVP/PMC was much smaller than that of PNVP, and the corresponding frequency shifts (Δfs) were 160 kHz for PNVP/PMC and 750 kHz for PNVP film. As a result, the normalized values against Δfs (Δf/Δfs) for the two sensing materials show even bigger difference, and the slope of the regression line for PNVP/PMC is around 17 times larger than that for PNVP film (cf. Figure 6b). Recalling that the polymer content in the nanocomposite was around 40 wt %, the frequency response per unit weight of PNVP for the SAW sensor deposited with PNVP/PMC became around 42 times larger than that for the PNVP-coated sensor. The poor performance of the PNVP-coated SAW sensor for ppm-level NH3 detection may be associated with the
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CONCLUSIONS We have prepared nanocomposites of polymers and ordered mesoporous carbon and have demonstrated their superior performance for gravimetric gas sensing. The platelet-shaped CMK-5-like carbon can be prepared by using zirconiumcontaining SBA-15 platelets as hard template, and the polymers can be directly grown on the carbon material by radical polymerization, forming interpenetrating and inseparable composite frameworks with carbon. The platelet nano11643
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(11) Terasaki, O.; Jun, S.; Joo, S. H.; Ryoo, R.; Kruk, M.; Jaroniec, M.; Liu, Z.; Ohsuna, T. Synthesis of New, Nanoporous Carbon with Hexagonally Ordered Mesostructure. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2000, 122, 10712. (12) Joo, S. H.; Choi, S. J.; Oh, I.; Kwak, J.; Liu, Z.; Terasaki, O.; Ryoo, R. Ordered Nanoporous Arrays of Carbon Supporting High Dispersions of Platinum Nanoparticles. Nature 2001, 412, 169. (13) Kruk, M.; Jaroniec, M.; Kim, T. W.; Ryoo, R. Synthesis and Characterization of Hexagonally Ordered Carbon Nanopipes. Chem. Mater. 2003, 15, 2815. (14) Solovyov, L. A.; Kim, T. W.; Kleitz, F.; Terasaki, O.; Ryoo, R. Comprehensive Structure Analysis of Ordered Carbon Nanopipe Materials CMK-5 by X-ray Diffraction and Electron Microscopy. Chem. Mater. 2004, 16, 2274. (15) Lund, K.; Muroyama, N.; Terasaki, O. Accidental Extinction in Powder XRD Intensity of Porous Crystals: Mesoporous Carbon Crystal CMK-5 and Layered Zeolite-Nanosheets. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2010, 128, 71. (16) Che, S. N.; Garcia-Bennett, A. E.; Liu, X. Y.; Hodgkins, R. P.; Wright, P. A.; Zhao, D. Y.; Terasaki, O.; Tatsumi, T. Synthesis of Large-Pore Ia3d Mesoporous Silica and Its Tubelike Carbon Replica. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2003, 42, 3930. (17) Kim, S. S.; Lee, D. K.; Shah, J.; Pinnavaia, T. J. Nanocasting of Carbon Nanotubes: In-Situ Graphitization of a Low-Cost Mesostructured Silica Templated by Non-Ionic Surfactant Micelles. Chem. Commun. 2003, 1436. (18) Kim, J.; Lee, J.; Hyeon, T. Direct Synthesis of Uniform Mesoporous Carbons from the Carbonization of As-Synthesized Silica/Triblock Copolymer Nanocomposites. Carbon 2004, 42, 2711. (19) Yang, C. M.; Weidenthaler, C.; Spliethoff, B.; Mayanna, M.; Schüth, F. Template Synthesis of Ordered Mesoporous Carbon with Polypyrrole as Carbon Precursor. Chem. Mater. 2005, 17, 355. (20) Lee, J.; Kim, J.; Hyeon, T. Recent Progress in the Synthesis of Porous Carbon Materials. Adv. Mater. 2006, 18, 2073. (21) Liang, C.; Li, Z.; Dai, S. Mesoporous Carbon Materials: Synthesis and Modification. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 3696. (22) Inagaki, M.; Orikasa, H.; Morishita, T. Morphology and Pore Control in Carbon Materials via Templating. RSC Adv. 2011, 1, 1620. (23) Xia, Y. D.; Yang, Z. X.; Mokaya, R. Templated Nanoscale Porous Carbons. Nanoscale 2010, 2, 639. (24) Shi, Y. F.; Wan, Y.; Zhao, D. Y. Ordered Mesoporous NonOxide Materials. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2011, 40, 3854. (25) Moriguchi, I.; Ozono, A.; Mikuriya, K.; Teraoka, Y.; Kagawa, S.; Kodama, M. Micelle-Templated Mesophases of Phenol-Formaldehyde Polymer. Chem. Lett. 1999, 1171. (26) Liang, C. D.; Hong, K. L.; Guiochon, G. A.; Mays, J. W.; Dai, S. Synthesis of a Large-Scale Highly Ordered Porous Carbon Film by Self-Assembly of Block Copolymers. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2004, 43, 5785. (27) Meng, Y.; Gu, D.; Zhang, F. Q.; Shi, Y. F.; Yang, H. F.; Li, Z.; Yu, C. Z.; Tu, B.; Zhao, D. Y. Ordered Mesoporous Polymers and Homologous Carbon Frameworks: Amphiphilic Surfactant Templating and Direct Transformation. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 7053. (28) Tanaka, S.; Nishiyama, N.; Egashira, Y.; Ueyama, K. Synthesis of Ordered Mesoporous Carbons with Channel Structure from an Organic-Organic Nanocomposite. Chem. Commun. 2005, 2125. (29) Yu, C. Z.; Fan, J.; Tian, B. Z.; Zhao, D. Y.; Stucky, G. D. HighYield Synthesis of Periodic Mesoporous Silica Rods and Their Replication to Mesoporous Carbon Rods. Adv. Mater. 2002, 14, 1742. (30) Persaud, K.; Dodd, G. Analysis of Discrimination Mechanisms in the Mammalian Olfactory System Using a Model Nose. Nature 1982, 299, 352. (31) Janata, J.; Josowicz, M.; Vanysek, P.; DeVaney, D. M. Chemical sensors. Anal. Chem. 1998, 70, 179R. (32) Gardner, J. W.; Bartlett, P. N. Electronic Noses: Principles and Applications; Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1999. (33) Lewis, N. S. Comparisons between Mammalian and Artificial Olfaction Based on Arrays of Carbon Black-Polymer Composite Vapor Detectors. Acc. Chem. Res. 2004, 37, 663.
composites exhibit high surface areas, large pore volumes, and relatively uniform mesoporosity. The SAW sensors deposited with the nanocomposites show much better sensitivity and reversibility than the polymer-coated sensors for ppm-level ammonia detection. The new nanocomposite-type sensing materials show promise for gravimetric-type electronic nose applications.
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT
S Supporting Information *
SEM images, XRD patterns, and TEM images of PMS materials, nitrogen physisorption isotherms, polymer loadings and textural properties of polymer/PMC nanocomposites. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http:// pubs.acs.org.
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*Fax 886-3-5165521; Tel 886-3-5731282; e-mail cmyang@mx. nthu.edu.tw. Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank the National Science Council of the Republic of China for financial support under Contracts NSC98-2113-M-007-020-MY3, NSC 100-2220-E-007-008, and NSC 100-2218-E-007-004.
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REFERENCES
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dx.doi.org/10.1021/la3015892 | Langmuir 2012, 28, 11639−11645
