FEATURE
FIRES in Indonesia: Crisis and Reaction Alarmed by fire and smoke pollution impacts, area nations are organizing to avoid another catastrophe. MICHAEL BRAUER A N D JAMAL HISHAM-HASHIM he fires that burned in the rainforests of Indonesia in the summer of 1997 contributed to one of the most broad-ranging environmental disasters of the century. These damaging fires and the resulting air pollution, which affected the health of tens of millions of inhabitants, created a months-long regional air pollution episode that impacted major parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, as well as parts of Thailand and the Philippines. Despite a large international relief effort—United Nations agencies, other intergovernmental and private organizations, and 18 individual countries contributed more than $13 million in aid—there was limited success in finding ways to effectively mitigate the impacts of air pollution, known locally as haze. Fire-fighting efforts were only moderately successful. Regional intergovernmental organizations, alarmed by the prospect that the fire events could be repeated in 1998, have been working to develop more effective strategies to deal with the area-wide problem. Some positive steps were taken at the first Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Ministerial Meeting on Haze in Singapore last December. The members of ASEAN are Brunei-Darussalam, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. The ASEAN secretariat is located in Jakarta, Indonesia. A Regional Haze Action Plan was formulated to address future haze occurrences. Under the plan, Malaysia will focus on measures to prevent fires through better management policies, enforcement, and public education. Singapore will coordinate monitoring of forest fires, and Indonesia will concentrate on strengthening regional forest fire-fighting capabilities. The region has the capability to accurately forecast future El Nino events and droughts, factors that contributed significantly to the intensity of the fire problem, and to predict future air pollution episodes. These activities
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A villager covers his face as he is overcome by smoke from a burning brush fire near east Kalimantan on the island of Borneo. (Courtesy AP Photo/Jonathan Head)
are critical components of the action plan. During their December meeting, ASEAN ministers agreed to strengthen the ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre to serve as a regional information center to compile, analyze, and disseminate satellite imagery, as well as meteorological and air quality information to detect and monitor fires and haze. Remote sensing was critical in 1997 to locate fires, track the transport of smoke plumes, and identify large plantations as major fire sources (i). At the same time, Malaysia and Indonesia also signed an agreement on joint disaster management and relief efforts, which covers cooperation in deployment of fire-fighting personnel and equipment, search-and-rescue missions, and training and information exchange. The action plan was reviewed at a second ASEAN ministerial meeting in February, and it was decided that the fires then burning in east Kalimantan in Indonesia could be used as an opportunity to test the components of the plan that relate to regional firefighting cooperation. These measures were tested further, with the reemergence this spring of smoldering peat fires and the occurrence of new fires compounded by drought. The meeting also concluded an agreement with the Asian Development Bank to enhance member countries' capabilities in implementing the plan. During a third meeting, in April, the ASEAN Research and Training Centre for Land and Forest Fire Management was established to strengthen efforts to manage fire threats The fire threat In 1997, uncontrolled forest fires raged in the Indonesian states of Kalimantan and Sumatra. Most of the fires were intentionally set as a method to clear land for farming. The severity of the fire episodes was also closely linked to the occurrence of the El Nino/ Southern Oscillation, which has historically brought
drought conditions to Southeast Asia, creating conditions ripe for fires. In combination with a marked increase in the scale of land-clearing operations and severe regional drought, last year's fire episode was one of the worst on record. A recent economic analysis of direct impacts of the air pollution resulting from the fires (mainly, those associated with health effects and lost industrial productivity and tourism) estimated losses of $1.4 billion, excluding direct damage from the fires themselves and longterm health impacts (2). The costs of fire-related damages (mainly, those due to lost timber, agricultural production, and other forest benefits in Indoestimated to be $3.0 billion. (3) The burning of Indonesia's rainforests to clear land has been an annual practice for over 100 years. For small farmers and indigenous people, this practice was the cheapest method of land clearing and probably had little permanent impact on the rainforests. However, within the past 15 years, the scale of land clearing has increased, as large rubber and oil palm plantations have used burning as an inexpensive method of clearing large areas. During this period of accelerated burning, it has become apparent that regional episodes of biomass smoke, locally known as haze, were being produced. The earliest reports of regional biomass smoke date back to 1982, with additional episodes reported in 1991 and 1994 (4). In 1997, this region once again experienced an El Nino-influenced severe drought. It contributed to uncontrolled fire spread and exacerbated regional air pollution. Most important, during El Nino/Southern Oscillation events, the region does not experience the semipermanent lowpressure system that facilitates dispersion of pollutants. Instead, high pressure leads to a substantial deof mixing heights that serves to retain air pollutants in the region The 1997 El Nino also deSEPT. 1, 1998/ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE S TECHNOLOGY / NEWS " 4 0 5 A
Extent of smoke from Indonesian fires As recorded by NASA's Earth Probe TOMS satellite, these (a) September 10,1997 and (b) September 12, 1997, processed images illustrate the extent of the pollution episode. Areas indicated in darkest red correspond to areas of highest aerosol pollution, while areas indicated in the lightest shade of gray indicate areas of lowest aerosol pollution associated with the fire events. Note the size of the pollution-affected areas relative to the continent of Australia. (Courtesy, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Laboratory for Atmospheres, TOMS Project)
layed the northeast monsoonal weather patterns from mid-October until late November. Without monsoonal rains and winds, fires continued to burn, and pollutants were not well dispersed. The combination of drought, atmospheric conditions that kept smoke at or near ground level, and prevailing winds resulted in smoke from these fires impacting both peninsular Malaya and die state of Sarawak on the island of Borneo (see figure above). Major population centers such as Kuala Lumpur in Malaya (population, approximately 2 million) and Kuching in Sarawak (population, approximately 400,000) were affected. Other countries in the region, including Singapore, soutiiern Thailand, and the Philippines, were also impacted. Biomass smoke pollution from the fires resulted in elevated levels of particulate air pollution for two to three months in many areas, with a severe episode occurring during most of the month of September. During tiiis episode, a state of emergency was declared in Sarawak, and factories, schools, and offices were closed as 24-hour PM10 levels reached as high as 930 ug/m3, more than 15 times higher than normal levels (see fig4 0 6 A • SEPT. 1, 1998 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / NEWS
ure at top of page 407A). Intermittent episodes occurred in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore until midNovember when the 1997 crisis was declared over. New episodes emerged in Sarawak and Brunei during this past spring. Health impacts and reaction The limited information available indicates measurable and widespread acute impacts on me healtii of affected populations. Indicative data were compiled by die Malaysian Ministry of Health for incidences of asthma, total acute respiratory infections, and conjunctivitis that occurred during die monms of August and September 1997 at a number of major hospitals in Kuala Lumpur (see figure on page 407A). Similar data have been reported for die state of Sarawak and for Singapore, where die Singapore Ministry of Healtii reported a 13% increase in visits to government clinics for acute respiratory infections and a 19% increase for astiima visits during die last week of September when particle levels peaked (5,6). Preliminary results from an ongoing study of 107 Kuala Lumpur school children found statistically significant decreases in lung function between pre-episode surements in June-July 1996 and measurements ducted during die episode in September 1997 (7) These findings suggest a measurable impact of die 1997 episode on die respiratory function of children It is uncertain whedier these respiratory impairments are permanent Analyses of more severe impacts such as mortality are in progress During me most severe period of me 1997 air pollution episode, the Malaysian government initiated several healtii-protection activities, including die distribution of face masks and general recommendations for the population to stay indoors and reduce outdoor activities. Individuals in high-risk groups (children, die elderly, smokers, outdoor workers, and individuals with heart and lung diseases) were advised to take medication as prescribed and, if possible, relocate to haze-free areas. Evacuation of entire cities was contemplated, and many foreign nationals left the region. Assistance provided by the United Nations and other agencies, as well as individual nations and private organizations included forest firefighting personnel training, equipment and supplies as well as air-monitoring equipment face masks and medical supplies (8) The widespread and commercial distribution of face masks to die general public for an air pollution event was unprecedented Policy making initiatives As an episode of transboundary air pollution exacerbated (but not caused) by the El Nino weather phenomenon, the extensive impact of the fires underscored a need for regional and global cooperation. Under die Regional Haze Action Plan, enacted in 1997, each ASEAN country is required to develop a national plan to prevent and mitigate future fires. These national plans contain policies to curb activities tiiat may lead to land and forestfires,including the prohibition of open burning and strict control of slash burning. Specifically, die plans must incorporate air quality and emissions monitoring reporting, strict
enforcement of legislation to prohibit open burning, establishment of a national task force to develop response plans for fires and smoke, and the use of information technology to Disseminate haze-related information to relevant agencies, preventing the spread of fires and enhancing public awareness (9). As a result of the limited effectiveness of exposureavoidance activities, priority is placed on the elimination of air pollution sources—in this case, preventing, controlling, and extinguishing fires. Because forest fires are local events that start in small, remote farming communities or on rural plantations, effective long-term measures aim to incorporate socioeconomic development of rural agricultural communities to address poverty. Also encouraged is the introduction of new farming technologies, public education about drought and air pollution, establishment of local forest firefighting capabilities by rural communities and plantation companies, locating and maintaining new local water sources for droughts and fire fighting and auditing of plantations within fire-prone areas. The Regional Haze Action Plan also includes the development for each country of an inventory of firefighting capabilities and identification of resources that can be made available for regional fire-fighting efforts. The plan aims to determine what equipment and technical expertise are needed within the region to combat forest fires, and sources for required assistance. The plan additionally requires each country to establish a procedure for making its fire-fighting resources available for regional operations and provide regular updates on progress made in fighting fires (9). As an example of regional cooperation, two firefighting arrangements were announced earlier this year that focus on preventing fires in Sumatra and containing fires burning in east Kalimantan (9). Efforts of the United Nations Environment Programme in coordinating international assistance on their behalf were welcomed by ASEAN officials. In April, the program solicited donors for a $10-million short-term action plan to contain the east Kalimantan fires, which were burning at that time. The plan covers equipment and training for 1000 local fire fighters use of fire-fighting aircraft and operational management and support to national fire-fighting teams. Current measures that are being implemented by countries in the region to avoid future air pollution episodes are largely centrallv coordinated efforts. Community-level strategies are vet to be implemented, despite a view that this is necessary to avoid a repeat of the 1997 haze episode.
Dangerous air pollution episodes The maximum 24-hour average PM10 concentrations measured in Kuala Lumpur, Malaya, and Kuching, Sarawak, during the AugustSeptember 1997 episodes greatly exceeded safe levels. The thick horizontal line denotes the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standard of 150 u.g/m3 for a 24-hour average.
The particulate-disease connection Daily particulate concentrations and numbers of respiratory disease visits to Kuala Lumpur General Hospital between August and September 1997. The collected data indicate a relationship between PM10 concentrations and respiratory cases.
(7) Hisham-Hashim, J.; Hashim, Z.; Jalaludin, J.; Lubis, S. H.; Hashim, R. Epidemiology, ,998, ,(4), SI. References (8) South-East Asia Environmental Emergency Situation Re(1) Wooster, M. J.; Ceccato, R; Flasse, S. E Int. J. Rem. Sens. 1998, port, No. 8 (Dec. 18, 1997)) Reef DHAGVA-97/08733 Uniied 19(3), 383-386. Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs, http:// (2) Glover, D. Interim results of a study on the economic value wwwnotes.reliefweb.int (accessed June 25, 1998). of haze damages in SE Asia. http//www.idrc.org.sg/eepsea/ (9) Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), http:// haze.htm (accessed June 16, 1998). www.asean.or.id (accessed June 16, 1998). (3) Glover, D. The Indonesianfiresand haze of 1997: The economic toll, http://www.idrc.org.sg/eepsea/fire.htm (acMichael Brauer is an associate professor with the cessed June 29, 1998). Occupational Hygiene Program and Department of (4) Harger, J.R.E. Atmos. Environ. 1995, 29(16), 1919-1942. (5) Brauer, M. Assessment of Health Implications of Haze in Medicine at the University of British Columbia. Jamal Malaysia; Mission Report RS/97/0441; Western Pacific ce- Hisham-Hashim is an associate professor with the gional Office, World Health Organization: Manila, PhilipEnvironmental Health Research Unit of the Departpines, 1997. (6) Leech, J.; Burnett, R. T; Cakmak, S.; Arif, M. T; Chang, G. ment of Community Health of the Universiti Kebangsaan in Malaysia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care. Med. 1998, J57(3), A260. SEPT. 1, 1998/ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE S TECHNOLOGY/NEWS " 4 0 7 A
