Perspective pubs.acs.org/ac
Perspective: Status and Future of Analytical Chemistry in India Krishna K. Verma* Department of Chemistry, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur 482001, Madhya Pradesh, India S Supporting Information *
ABSTRACT: Relative to many other areas in chemistry, analytical chemistry appears singularly lagging behind in India despite the commendable growth it had shown in the past both in teaching and research. Certain presumptions in policy making and current educational practices are believed to be the crux of the problem.
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nalytical chemistry is modus operandi of all disciplines of experimental science. As a subject it has been ever pervading into sister divisions of chemistry, biology, material science, pharmacy, etc. and allowed collection of vital data using a wide variety of principles involved both in theory and instrumentation. Likewise, in turn, analytical chemistry has been continually strengthened by scientists of diverse background and training. The subject has a long history of development, and the results produced at each stage provided highly worthwhile conclusions. The analytical measurements enabled understanding of materials and their behavior. Application of basic physical principles and reaction chemistry gave ever living methods of Winkler dissolved oxygen determination, Karl Fischer water analysis, Volhard titration of silver(I), Andrews titration of iodide, and complexometric titration of metal ions.1 The impact of interaction of light and electricity with matter was still greater on analytical science, and it led to newer developments, fabrication and applications to comprehend the whole methodology that was not possible by classical chemical methods alone. In due course, analytical laboratories became a landscape of moderate to sophisticated instruments, and innumerable accessories. The impact of above classical developments has largely guided the analytical researches in India in the past despite numerous constraints, mostly financial, and played an important role in the education of analytical chemistry in the country. This article is a perspective construction of analytical chemistry in India and its future. A previous feature article presented a critical account of situation prevailing until 1988 in India with regard to teaching and research in analytical chemistry.2
Analytical chemistry in India began with pioneering work on analysis of hydrazine with hexacyanoferrate(III)3 and continued with development of organic reagents for inorganic analyses.4−9 Complex formation with a metal ion, liquid−liquid extraction, and spectrophotometry became prime working steps to sustain wide-ranging analytical activities.10,11 Though, attempts for
DATA COLLECTION AND SURVEY Scopus (Elsevier, The Netherlands) was used as a data source. Retrieved total publications from India during the period 2001
Received: October 26, 2016 Accepted: January 1, 2017 Published: January 1, 2017
to 2016 were sorted into chemistry articles contributed from universities and institutes. Though authors prefer a variety of journals for publication of their work, without any intention of underestimation of research efforts, 20 peer-reviewed journals were selected for extraction of Indian contribution during the above period. Lastly, total research output was collected in physical sciences, chemistry, and analytical chemistry from 21 cities of India which have been known either to offer graduation or postgraduation courses or have strong research activities in the field. Here, data were collected for India’s economically three distinct periods of 1991−2000, 2001−2010, and 2011− August 2016 for comparison of relative activities within and at the intercity level. Besides electronic sorting, a thorough manual categorization of collected articles was invariably performed to avoid miscollation with respect to the authors’ affiliation and category of work. A survey was conducted on the status of analytical chemistry with respect to infrastructural facility, funding situation, available faculty, popularity of the subject, etc. Responses were sought from practicing analytical chemists of a wide range of experience and age and institutional or industrial background.
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© XXXX American Chemical Society
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EARLY RESEARCH DEVELOPMENTS
DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04188 Anal. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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Analytical Chemistry Table 1. Total Research Publications from Indian Universities and Institutes During 2001−2016 research publications chemistry
a b
a
from universities
from institutes
year
total publications
articles
reviews
articles
reviews
book chapters
articles
reviews
book chapters
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
22,173 23,071 25,814 27,747 30,556 35,684 39,910 44,588 51,089 59,008 69,450 74,917 82,080 92,824 95,771 84,143
3,886 4,452 4,887 5,301 5,727 6,547 7,411 8,519 10,549 11,301 12,651 13,120 14,214 16,090 16,062 13,911
49 71 141 148 149 146 141 166 163 159 228 343 286 389 367 443
1,888 2,241 2,562 2,623 2,889 3,499 3,735 4,477 5,627 6,021 7,167 7,410 8,054 9,069 9,081 7,895
27 34 59 80 59 67 66 84 69 81 120 194 151 244 244 299
−b −b 7 14 18 13 17 29 18 21 31 35 28 58 108 −b
1064 1,236 1,180 1,325 1,982 2,610 2,999 3,535 4,482 4873 5,489 5,907 6,630 7,885 8,329 7,683
26 23 41 52 74 76 72 93 85 88 120 188 149 210 182 239
−b 10 −b 3 9 18 15 22 10 25 40 25 37 60 105 −b
total
858,825
154,628
3,389
84,238
1,878
397
67,209
1,718
379
Number of articles/reviews may exceed the total number of publications in a particular year due to joint publications by universities and institutes. − refers to data not cited by the Scopus.
analytes concentrations far higher than found in real samples. High-performance liquid chromatography30,31 and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry32,33 appeared relatively late in the Indian analytical scenario.
alternative safe solvents were moderate, noteworthy was introduction of molten12 or microcrystalline13 naphthalene for extraction of metal complexes. Besides spectrophotometry, amperometry14 and polarography12 were also utilized as final methods of determination. Fundamental physical principles of solvent extraction were well researched and exploited from the beginning of activities, and India’s contribution in this field was at par with that from abroad. Much concern was paid in attaining selectivity by manipulating complex forming ability of the reagent and masking secondary ions. Surprisingly, there were no direct attempts on procedural manipulations for optimizing sensitivity, but the latter was largely understood as an outcome of molar absorptivity of the metal complex. Researchers were rather unconvinced of miniaturization and online solvent extractions which began to take shape as future ways of performing analytical experiments, and the importance of sample size could not be indigenously realized. Titrimetric analysis was another area that found widespread practice in moderately equipped laboratories, and a good account of past researches from India could be found in the most comprehensive works by Berka et al.15 and Siggia and Hanna.16 These works, and those which appeared later, are testimony of Indian scientists’ charismatic attraction to fundamental reaction chemistry and its thoughtful practice in basic analytical research. Worth mentioning were first use of photo-oxidation of iodoform,17 reductimetric titrations with iron(II) in the presence of strong phosphoric acid,18 and chemical manipulations with the Weisz ring oven technique.19 Overseas collaborations had great influence in organizing future activities in analytical chemistry.20−23 UV−visible spectrophotometry had been a method of choice for Indian analytical chemists. Few laboratories used instrumental methods based on neutron activation,24,25 polarography,26 and atomic absorption spectrometry.27 Ion exchange separations28 and thin layer chromatography29 remained for long as methods of choice in chromatography but often working on
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CURRENT RESEARCH STATUS Indian economy underwent a major transformation since early 1990s and now has become one of the fastest growing economies of the world. It is during this period that Indian science, including analytical chemistry, progressively integrated itself with the international mainstream. Nonetheless, India is a surprising mix of developed and underdeveloped worlds. It is evident from comparison of relative levels of funding and available infrastructural facilities, scientific manpower, and supporting staff in the central government funded national laboratories/institutes and the state government run colleges/ universities. The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), New Delhi, listed on March 5, 2016 a total of 16 Indian Institutes of Technology and opened of late 4 more. The University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi, itemized on July 5, 2016 a total of 759 universities including 350 state, 47 central (MHRD funded), 123 deemed, and 239 private universities. Thus, a greater number of faculty members work in colleges and universities, and many are steering their research programs under a modest environment, yet their total research output is not insignificant (Table 1). It is these researchers who contribute to a larger part of analytical science emanating from India; for others, analytical chemistry is an offshoot of something else of a more serious endeavor. Not surprisingly, it is this latter class of chemists who intermittently contribute to analytical chemistry. One of the most formidable applications of analytical chemistry initiated in mid 1990s, and carried out solely by a single laboratory,34,35 was the discovery that brought attention to the arsenic problem in South Asia, particularly West Bengal B
DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04188 Anal. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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unprecedented change in the way it is practiced today, largely due to instrumentation. Realizing an ideally supportive environment is a big task for India, and several measures in transition have been taken. India has attained remarkable progress in other areas of technology but has not been able to develop indigenous analytical instrumentation competence. The Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi, one of major research supporting agencies, has established 13 centers, under its Sophisticated Analytical Instruments Facilities Program, located in different parts of the country with the aim to overcome scarcity of instruments and difficulty in their maintenance. Additionally, DST also sanctions grants for augmentation of infrastructural facilities to educational institutions to keep stride with global expansions. Though the real benefits of such arrangements are debatable, a pragmatic increase in the number of publications in peer reviewed analytical journals during the period 2010 to 2016 is noteworthy (Figure 1). As a modest measure to judge the growth of analytical chemistry in India, the performance of 21 one cities, which are known as major contributing centers in the field, has been evaluated here by their research output during 2011 to August 2016 in the backdrop of credits in two slabs of 10 years each during 1991 to 2010 (Table S1 of the Supporting Information). The result is a mixed observation, while certain centers have performed better in the current decade and many others show a declining trend. New centers of Amritsar, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad are fast developing, old known centers of Aligarh and Visakhapatnam are declining unexpectedly; and Allahabad, Jabalpur, Raipur, and Shimla are only poorly performing. The overall performance in analytical chemistry is only 6.5% versus the total chemistry articles published by these 21 cities. However, the silverlining is increasing performance within analytical chemistry where the relative output has been 19% during 1991−2000, 45% during 2001−2010, and 36% during 2011−August 2016; the figure for the latter decade will undoubtedly rise by the end of 2020. Equally interesting is the spread of analytical techniques that finds acceptance in current practices. Though, spectrophotometry still maintains its traditional patronage, development of sensors, electrochemical methods, hyphenated chromatographic techniques, and solid and liquid phase based extraction methods for sample preparation have rapidly become the methods of choice (Figure 2). The 21 research centers from widely separated geographical locations in the country also represent their technique related local preferences. Thus, as judged by the relative number of articles, cities with their certain focused areas are Mysuru, Visakhapatnam, and Raipur in UV−visible spectrophotometry; Hyderabad, Mumbai, and Delhi in high-performance liquid chromatography; Mumbai in classical liquid−liquid extraction, high-performance thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography, and neutron activation analysis; Hyderabad in modern solid phase/liquid phase extractions and inductively coupled plasma; Roorkee and Varanasi in sensors; Mysuru in titrations; Aligarh and Roorkee in thin layer chromatography; Roorkee in chiral separations; and Roorkee and Gwalior in electrochemical methods. Gwalior, Jabalpur, and Raipur specialize in single drop extractions (SDME); Patiala in packed sorbent extractions; and Gwalior in analysis of chemical warfare agents. As a promise in sustaining future research, the contribution of younger generation of Indian analytical chemists either independently or in a group is most significant. To mention a
in India and many areas of Bangladesh. Arsenic levels around 50 μg L−1 have been found in groundwater which were well above the maximum permissible limit of 10 μg L −1 recommended by the WHO. Occurrence of pesticides in bottled water and soft drinks,36 and residues of aromatic amines in colorants added to ice creams and fruit juices37 are certain other examples where analytical chemistry played a vital role, and the published information increased awareness of Indian consumers about water and food quality. India is still a relatively small performer on the analytical chemistry platform, and its contribution was a little over 3% in 20 peer reviewed journals against the total chemistry papers published during 2001 to 2016 (Table 2). In comparison, Table 2. Articles in Peer Reviewed Analytical Chemistry Journals Published During 2001−2016 from India journal (abbreviation) Analyst (AST) Analytica Chimica Acta (ACA) Analytical Bioanalytical Chemistry (ABC) Analytical Biochemistry (ANB) Analytical Chemistry (ANC) Analytical Letters (ANL) Analytical Methods (ANM) Chromatographia (CHR) Electrochimica Acta (ECA) Journal of Chromatography A (JCA) Journal of Chromatography B (JCB) Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry (JEC) Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis (JPA) Journal of Separation Science (JSS) Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC) Microchemical Journal (MCJ) Microchimica Acta (MCA) Sensors and Actuators B Chemical (SAB) Talanta (TAL) Trends in Analytical Chemistry (TAC) total
(%)a
2011−2016
(%)b
25 195 67
0.04 0.28 0.10
205 96 48
0.24 0.11 0.06
97 46 123 28 236 237 106
0.14 0.07 0.18 0.04 0.34 0.35 0.15
91 98 32 379 52 276 70
0.11 0.11 0.04 0.44 0.06 0.32 0.08
155
0.23
105
0.12
105
0.15
155
0.18
291
0.42
172
0.20
65
0.09
75
0.09
11 22 24 370
0.02 0.03 0.03 0.54
27 33 49 727
0.03 0.04 0.06 0.84
251 7
0.37 0.01
131 36
0.15 0.04
2,461
3.59
2857
3.32
2001−2010
a
(%) analytical articles versus total 68,580 chemistry articles published during 2001−2010 from India. b(%) analytical articles versus total 86,048 chemistry articles published during 2011−2016 from India.
organic or medicinal chemistry research output from India is much higher than analytical chemistry, and this situation is not different at world output level in these fields. During this period the total number of analytical articles from India was much higher than those published in peer reviewed journals. This indicates a trend to publish in low impact journals. The number of analytical research proposals submitted for funding to national agencies is constantly decreasing, and often, in the situation contrary to this fact, the success rate does not commensurate with available potential in the field. The Indian peer-review process of research proposals still has a bias “analytical chemistry does not def ine a science, but rather an activity in support of science.”38 Modern science has witnessed an C
DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04188 Anal. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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Figure 1. Yearwise, 2010−2016, distribution of analytical articles from India published in peer-reviewed analytical journals. Journals abbreviation as in Table 2.
Figure 2. Spread of analytical techniques used in collective analytical research output of 21 major cities of India (as mentioned in Table S1) during 1991−August 2016.
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EDUCATION IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY Many Indian universities, at least 17 until 1988,2 offered graduation (a 3-year course after schooling) with analytical chemistry as part or full paper and postgraduation (a 2-year course) with analytical chemistry either as a compulsory paper among other papers of chemistry or as a full course of study in the final year. An equal number of universities offered doctoral degree courses. Known centers with a full range of analytical courses have been Aligarh Muslim University, Andhra University, Banaras Hindu University, University of Allahabad, University of Roorkee (now, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee), and Sagar University (now Dr. Hari Singh Gaur University, Sagar). Traditionally, the educational system in India had reservations on introduction of sophisticated instrumentation in academic curriculum, especially in teaching laboratories, principally due to scarcity of funds to make essential purchases, shortage of teaching faculty with technical
few examples, breakthrough is attained on the development of sensors,39,40 microextraction technique with AAS41 and electrochemistry42 at Bilaspur; micellar liquid chromatography43 at Sagar; sample handling techniques and separation science44−46 at Jabalpur, Lucknow, and Bhopal; metal-complexes as sensors47 and analytical applications of ionic liquids48 at Delhi; nanoparticles modified electrochips sensors49 at Chandigarh; consumer products analysis using packed sorbents50 at Patiala, and by proton induced γ-ray emission51 at Hyderabad. As novel innovations, SDME has been coupled with FT-IR52 at Raipur and fiber-optics based cuvetteless microspectrophotometry53 at Jabalpur. Such examples are manifestations of young researchers’ ability to work in interface areas of chemistry, and in this regard, many of them have immensely benefitted by their postdoctoral experience abroad. D
DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04188 Anal. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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A range of assorted techniques and methodologies constitute the postgraduate analytical curriculum and does not have emphasis on the systematic conceptual development of the subject, as is explicitly noted in other branches of chemistry. Skill development with modular instruments, innovation, and fabrication of specific accessories in institutional workshop, as observed in the U.S. and European teaching laboratories, is not the practice. In the absence of adequate understanding and infrastructural facilities, outsourcing analytical services has become common in degree and project works. In a country where every other individual seems to be pursuing IT, electronics and programming have still not entered in the analytical curricula. With a large training gap, partial placement of doctoral students in industry or an advanced institution has not proved supportive for quality development. A country of 1.25 billion people has a bare minimal number of students enrolled for doctoral degrees. The postdoctoral program which determines the quality of science could not become effectively popular. “There have been signif icant advances in some areas and glaring deficiencies in others”54still holds true. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, conducts twice a year the National Entrance Test (NET) in science subjects including chemistry which a candidate is required to clear in order to qualify for a national scholarship for research and an entry level faculty position in academia. The questions asked in the NET are customarily on topics from physical, inorganic, and organic chemistry. Similarly, faculty positions in universities and colleges are open for physical, inorganic, and organic chemistry but not for analytical chemistry. Some universities regard analytical chemistry positions as part of the inorganic chemistry faculty. These inconsistencies are hampering the growth of education and research output in analytical chemistry in India. The analytical fraternity in the country has not adequately addressed these problems to the Government of India or funding agencies. By a modest estimate, about 30% of chemistry degree holders, who did not have analytical chemistry in their career, end up in jobs related to analytical chemistry in industries. For being not catered with suitable candidates by academia, industries too helplessly offer training to new incumbents on areas of their apprehension rather than on a broad spectrum of analytical science. Most pharmaceutical industries have research and development sections, and many are equipped with stateof-the-art instrumental facilities. However, the state of working collaboration between industries and academia is currently not encouraging. In this connection, a survey was conducted on the status and future of analytical chemistry in India between the practicing analytical chemists of all age groups from academia and industry. The response was overwhelming as about 75% of surveyed persons participated promptly. In replies to related questions, each expressed a concern for the need to systematic teaching and training on analytical chemistry from school to the university level. Government needs to establish accredited analytical laboratories all over the country for quality analysis of all types of samples. These laboratories should meet international standards. With these certain grassroot initiatives, quality students would be able to have a better understanding of the strengths of analytical education and extend their studies up to the doctoral level. Certain other observations (many as open ended responses) of survey participants are summarized in Table 3. These annotations have merit in organizing a
knowhow, and lack of technical training programs. Thus, only classical methods of analysis could find a place in colleges and universities curriculum, and the present situation is not much changed. The national laboratories and institutions were on a different wavelengththey managed to have state-of-the-art facilities, but without emphasis on teaching and research in analytical chemistry. Exception to this situation have been the Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai and Delhi, Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai. Analytical chemistry had faced one more problem since its inception. Barring at few universities/institutes, the subject is taught by faculty members of sister disciplines of chemistry. Therefore, the very distinctive nature of analytical chemistry could not be appreciated at the classroom level. Growing industries in India did not have a direct interaction with educational institutions, and most of them were in the early process of establishing their research and development laboratories. Indian universities are apparently unaware of the advances in analytical chemistry or its role in education in making students skill fluent. The analytical chemistry syllabus at graduate and postgraduate level is mostly rudimentary. It covers conventional and traditional methods of analysis overlooking the instrumental methods and their significant aspects of hyphenated forms and applications. The need for automation and techniques of sample cleanup and analyte(s) preconcentration by using various extraction methods for real world samples have so far not been introduced. UGC as the prime body responsible for controlling the standard of education in the country introduced the format of syllabi in 2002 for graduate and postgraduate classes and made it mandatory for adoption by all universities. While the situation in graduate programs was not improved, analytical chemistry could only find a place as a single optional paper at postgraduate level. Since then, UGC has not revised the syllabus. Students too show least preference for analytical chemistry from the career point of view. It may be argued that analytical education has shrunk in India. Compared to the analytical curriculum of U.S. or European universities, in India analytical chemistry appears mostly in any combination with sister branches of chemistry in undergraduate courses. For example, separations by paper and thin layer chromatography of metal ions are inorganic, whereas of amino acids and carbohydrates are organic; and conductometric acid− base and precipitation titrations are physical, whereas accomplishing the same by using a couple of indicators or by Mohr/Volhard/Fajan titration is inorganic chemistry. Some universities have industrial and environmental chemistry where determination of available chlorine in bleaching powder, chromium and iron (in their ores) by iron(II) titration or their mixtures by spectrophotometry, and analysis of oils are under industrial chemistry, and determination of dissolved oxygen, chemical/biological oxygen demand and a number of organic/inorganic substances as pollutants belong to environmental chemistry. Such categorization has led to grave confusion among students, and they fail to appreciate the comprehensive nature of analytical chemistry. This also appears as a prime reason for analytical chemistry not becoming a major subject in India. In the prevailing structure of undergraduate curriculum, a different assortment of courses is not feasible. The University of Delhi has recently started a choice based undergraduate program with analytical chemistry where much of such anomalies are avoided, but its popularity against regular honors program is only skeptical. E
DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04188 Anal. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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country for the stipulated duration of 3 weeks (or longer) of a program. Indian funding agencies should avoid their overcautious style of working and evaluate the research proposalsfor Indian as well as international fundingby their scientific merit, avoiding abnormal bias associated with analytical chemistry and irrespective of whatsoever humble institutional background the investigator might have. Necessity to monitor the quality of water, air, food, etc. is as essential as the development of human resource associated with these endeavors and ultimately to respect our global responsibility.
thoughtful strategy for the future development of analytical chemistry in India. Table 3. Survey on the Status of Analytical Chemistry in Colleges and State Universities in India criteria points Regular use of equipment/instrumentation for meaningful purpose Maintenance of equipment/instrumentation Procedure of upgradation of analytical instrumentation/ purchase of new instruments Financial support by national agencies to sustain analytical researches Supply of analytical standards Supply of instrument spares Choice of analytical chemistry as a career subject Level of proficiency of new incumbents on theoretical analytical chemistry Level of hands-on experience and skills of new incumbents on analytical chemistry Cost of analytical training by private institutes/ organizations Prospects of employment of trained analytical chemist in industry Participation of industry or other bodies in analytical training Role of educational institutions in imparting worthwhile knowledge and skill in analytical chemistry Library facility and online access to international literature Assistance of local workshop in fabrication of accessories Level of analytical chemistry knowhow available in India to meet competitive global requirement Level of Indian doctoral research in analytical chemistry relative to international standards Level of Indian research publications in analytical chemistry versus international publications Professional credit to analytical chemists/scientists with respect to others in chemistry Present participation of policy makers/Government for advancement of analytical science
responsea Average Unsatisfactory Tedious
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT
S Supporting Information *
Moderate Slow Poor Average
. The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04188. Table S1, data on research output during 2011 to August 2016 on physical sciences, chemistry, and analytical chemistry from 21 major cities of India (PDF)
Poor Costly
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail:
[email protected].
Unsatisfactory
ORCID
Moderate Low Not good
Krishna K. Verma: 0000-0003-2223-3027 Notes
The author declares no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author is extremely thankful to participants of analytical chemistry survey who provided invaluable information to supplement the subject matter of this report.
Average Very low
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a
The accorded response had 70% or above agreement among the participants of survey.
REFERENCES
(1) Jeffery, G. H.; Bassett, J.; Mendham, J.; Denney, R. C. Vogel’s Text Book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis; Longman: London, 2009. (2) Qureshi, M.; Varshney, K. G.; Khan, M. A. TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem. 1988, 7, 193−197. (3) Ray, P.; Sen, H. K. Z. Anorg. Chem. 1912, 76, 380−386. (4) Ray, P.; Ray, R. M. Quart. J. Indian Chem. Soc. 1926, 3, 118. (5) Ray, P. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 1930, 79, 94−101. (6) Shome, S. C. Analyst 1950, 75, 27−32. (7) Shome, S. C. Anal. Chem. 1951, 23, 1186−1188. (8) Priyadarshini, U.; Tandon, S. G. Anal. Chem. 1961, 33, 435−438. (9) Satyanarayana, K.; Mishra, R. K. Anal. Chem. 1974, 46, 1609− 1610. (10) Khopkar, S. M.; De, A. K. Anal. Chem. 1960, 32, 478−480. (11) Deorkar, N. V.; Khopkar, S. M. Anal. Chim. Acta 1991, 245, 27− 33. (12) Fujinaga, T.; Puri, B. K. Talanta 1975, 22, 71−74. (13) Chang, L.-F.; Satake, M.; Puri, B. K.; Bag, S. P. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 1983, 56, 2000−2003. (14) Rao, A. L. J.; Puri, B. K. Fresenius' Z. Anal. Chem. 1969, 247, 18− 20. (15) Berka, A.; Vulterin, J.; Zyka, J. Newer Redox Titrants; Pergamon Press: Oxford, U.K., 1965. (16) Siggia, S.; Hanna, J. G. Quantitative Organic Analysis via Functional Groups, 4th ed.; John Wiley: New York, 1979. (17) Bose, S. Anal. Chem. 1958, 30, 1137−1139. (18) Rao, G. G.; Dikshitulu, L. S. A. Talanta 1963, 10, 295−306. (19) Biswas, S. D.; Munshi, K. N.; Dey, A. K. Microchim. Acta 1963, 51, 40−44.
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CLOSING REMARKS It is the analytical chemists who need to appreciate the present problem in totality and introduce a new paradigm of teaching and research. Analytical chemistry should be included as a main subject in teaching programs with emphasis on the laboratory course. The unique character of analytical chemistry requires a drift from substantially theory-based teaching to laboratory demonstrations and adoption of skill oriented experiments. There should be enough opportunity for students to acquire hands-on-experience on sophisticated instruments and perform innovative investigations. We are required to invest heavily on seminars and workshops to popularize the subject in its true virtue, establish its outreach in understanding the basic sciences, and to attract bright students. There could be kept a training component for undergraduate students in select major research projects. To realize these aims, technical personnel must be given due importance and responsibility as those in teaching and research. The UGC Human Resource Development Program could play a wider role by providing an opportunity to young faculty to work in association with established analytical chemists in the F
DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04188 Anal. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
Perspective
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DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04188 Anal. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
