Pesticides - ACS Publications - American Chemical Society

Chapter 15

Beneficial Impacts of Pesticide Use for Consumers

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Leonard P. Gianessi National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, 1616 Ρ Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20036

Widespread use of synthetic organic pesticides has contributed enormous benefits to U.S. consumers. Chemical pest control has contributed to dramatic increases in yields for most major fruit and vegetable crops. As a result, U.S. consumers have an inexpensive year -round supply of a wide variety of foods. Chemical pesticides have contributed, as well, to the appearance and quality of produce - traits highly prized by U.S. consumers. The benefits of chemical pesticides for consumers can be seen in terms of: (1) the price of organic foods (on average 57% higher), and (2) the consequences of bans on pesticide uses (a decline in production of certain apple varieties following the Alar ban).

The beneficial impacts of pesticide use for consumers fall into four categories: • Inexpensive food • Plentiful, year-round supplies of food • A wide variety of fruits and vegetables • High quality/appearance of foods Many of the benefits of pesticide use for consumers result from enormous increases in crop yields. High yields are one of the reasons that food prices are low in the U.S. and food is plentiful on a year-round basis. A succinct summary statement regarding the role of pesticides in increasing crop yields with subsequent benefits for consumers was provided by the National Research Council in a 1993 report (7): Chemical pest control has contributed to dramatic increases in yields for most major fruit and vegetable crops. Its use has led to substantial improvements over the past 40 years in the quantity and variety of the U.S. diet and thus in the health of the public.

© 1999 American Chemical Society

In Pesticides: Managing Risks and Optimizing Benefits; Ragsdale, N., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1999.

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Food Production Increases Numerous examples of dramatic improvements in crop yields can be cited to support the beneficial role of pesticides. In California's strawberry acreage, average yields were 5 to 10 tons per acre in the 1950's, even though the yield potential of new cultivars was 20 to 30 tons per acre (2). California strawberry growers began fumigating their acreage with methyl bromide in the mid-1960's and strawberry yields have averaged 20 to 25 tons per acre for the past 30 years. Research demonstrated that soil-borne diseases had been claiming the greater part of the untaken harvest, and the chemical solved the problem. In Maine, wild blueberry fields have been harvested for hundreds of years. Weeds were a serious problem, that was controlled only recently. In the mid-1980's an herbicide (hexazinone) was made available for Maine blueberries, and production doubled as a result - from 20 million lb/yr to 40 million lb/yr (3). Production from Florida serves as a winter source for many fruits and vegetables. One major crop from Florida in the winter is sweet corn, that is delivered fresh to most cities on the East Coast. Florida is the major fresh corn producing state with 500 million pounds in annual production (4). The fresh corn industry did not exist in Florida before the introduction of synthetic chemicals in the late 1940's. Prior to the development of synthetic insecticides, it was not even possible to grow the crop in Florida because of the many insect problems. Apple production certainly has benefited from chemical pesticide use. There are numerous insect and disease problems of apples, including codling moth, apple maggot, apple scab and bitter rot. These pest problems have plagued apple growers since the beginning of widespread commercial production in the early 1900's. Thus, commercial apple trees were sprayed regularly with inorganic compounds such as arsenic and sulfur from 1900 to 1950 (5). When the switch-over to synthetic chemicals occurred in the early 1950's, there were tremendous production increases in apples. In many states, per tree apple production increased by 100% to 200%: New York (110%), Pennsylvania (157%), Virginia (209%) and Michigan (109%). Not only did the synthetic chemicals do a better job of controlling the pests, but they also were less harmful to the trees. The arsenic and lime sulfur, while controlling pests, actually damaged the trees and reduced their production. Potato production has been plagued with numerous diseases and insects. One of the most serious disease problems of potatoes is late blight - the disease that led to the Irish potato famine. Once again, consumers have benefited from the use of modern chemicals in potato production. For example, most potato growers in Maine switched from using copper to using the E B D C fungicides when they became available in the early 1950's. Average potato yields in Maine increased from 17,000 lb/A in the early 1940's to 26,000 lb/A in the early 1950's (6).

Organic Production One way to evaluate the value of synthetic chemical pesticides to growers and consumers is to examine the economics of organic food production. Sales of organically produced food and fiber have increased steadily in the last few years. In 1995, organic sales totaled $2.8 billion. Organic growers do not use synthetic



209 chemical pesticides. However, in general, organic foods cost the consumer more. Consumer Reports recently conducted a comparison shopping test and found that, on average, organic foods cost 57 % more than conventionally produced foods (7). One of the reasons that organic foods cost more is the use of less effective, more costly pest control techniques in place of synthetic chemical controls. As a result of using these less effective, more costly techniques, organic growers need to receive a higher price per unit of output in order to make a profit. One of the really costly operations in organic production is weed control without the use of synthetic chemicals. Vegetable crops like lettuce, tomatoes, carrots, onions and celery can be overwhelmed by weeds that cause yield losses by competing for soil moisture, light and space. Weeds also interfere with harvesting. Commercial growers apply synthetic herbicides to fields, often before emergence of weeds and gain season-long control of germinating weeds, usually at a cost of $55 to $60 per acre for vegetable crops (#). Organic growers use hand laborers with hoes to remove weeds from fields. Detailed cost of production budgets from the University of California indicate that an acre of lettuce or garlic requires 18 hours of hand labor for weeding at a cost of $150/A. Crops like onions require more than 70 hours of hand weeding at a cost of $600/A (9). In arid California many vegetable crops are irrigated with drip irrigation pipes right down the row of plants and weed growth is controlled as well with irrigation. Weeds are a problem in California, but not as serious a problem as in states with normal rainfall - such as New Jersey. Weed control experiments in New Jersey indicate that 200 and 1000 hours of weeding labor are needed for lettuce and onions, respectively, to produce yields equivalent to acreage treated with herbicides (10). The high costs of hand weeding result in higher costs and prices for organic food and fiber. Organic cotton is being produced in a few arid regions, in the southwest (Texas, California). A California organic cotton grower was quoted in the New York Times to the effect that lower yields (20% lower) and higher labor costs for hoeing were two of the main reasons that organic cotton sells to the consumer at three to four times the cost of conventional cotton (77). Retrospective Analysis Another way to determine the benefits of pesticide use for consumers is to examine what happens to food prices and supplies when pesticides are banned. This is a contentious issue with many activist groups claiming that, historically, no price or quantity effects have occurred when pesticides have been banned. The Environmental Working Group claims that the cancellation by E P A of 200 uses of 12 pesticides since 1985 had absolutely no effect on the price or the availability of food anywhere in the U.S. (72). Although it may appear on the surface that there are plenty of fruits and vegetables at an affordable price, past bans on pesticides have led to a measurable effect on supply and price. These effects are subtle, difficult to measure, and generally specific to certain types of products or regions of the country. Cranberries are used widely in many consumer drinks and also are sold as dried and fresh products. Cranberries are subject to many different diseases, such as black rot. Between 1988 and 1993, U.S. cranberry growers lost the use of six fungicides that had been used for control of diseases of cranberries, including captafol, the most



210 effective fungicide. These cancellations were not the result of E P A rule making, but rather resulted from voluntary cancellations by registrants. One effect of dropped fungicide registrations for cranberries has been a major decline in the production of cranberries for the fresh market. In Massachusetts, utilization of cranberries for the fresh market declined by 50% between 1983-1993 (13). Growers and shippers cannot take the risk of shipping cranberries in their fresh form with the possibility that they are diseased. The rots might appear in grocery stores or households. Thus, consumers who prefer fresh cranberries are having a difficult time finding them as a result of the lost fungicide registrations. The discontinuation of the use of Alar in apples produced effects that were variety specific. Before the ban, the two varieties of apples that relied most heavily on Alar were Stayman and Mcintosh. About 40% of the nation's acreage of Mcintosh and Stayman were treated with Alar before the ban (14). Stayman apples are prone to develop serious cracks while still on the tree. This is a physiological disorder that Alar applications control. Following the ban on Alar, Stayman apple growers had no effective way of preventing the cracking. As a result, Stayman trees were pulled out of the ground. In Pennsylvania, apple tree censuses in 1986 and 1993 indicated that 30,000 Stayman trees were removed (15). Consumers who prefer the Stayman variety of apples have not been able to enjoy this variety as before. Mcintosh apples are prone to two physiological disorders that Alar prevents: 1) They tend to fall off the trees before maturity, and 2) They frequently lack adequate fruit color. Following the ban on Alar, a large number of the Mcintosh apples fell off the trees before maturity and were not picked up for the fresh market. A large number of Mcintosh apples did not color adequately and were not marketed fresh. As a result, New York State production of Mcintosh apples for the fresh market declined 18%, while the wholesale price rose by 6% (16). Consumers who prefer fresh market Mcintosh apples have not been able to find them as easily. Food Quality American consumers have high quality expectations for fruits and vegetables. The fruits and vegetables must be attractive in appearance and free from insect or other damage. Several groups have suggested that these marketing standards should be changed and consumers should accept surface blemishes and scars that would allow growers to reduce pesticide use (17). Some examples of surface blemishes include apples that are damaged by shallow feeding of the red banded leaf roller or small areas on the apple surface with dried apple scab lesions. A study was conducted at Michigan State University to determine what amount of apple surface damage consumers are willing to accept (18). The results suggest that consumers are willing to accept only a minor amount of pest damage in order to obtain reductions in pesticide residues. There is a three cent price penalty for each 1% increase in surface area damage. Focus groups indicated that worm damage is unacceptable to consumers. For processed foods, some analysts have suggested that a different standard for pest damage ought to apply. For example, David Pimentel of Cornell University argues that for processing tomatoes the tomato fruitworm is a cosmetic pest (79). After all, the tomatoes are ground up into paste and sauces and insect fragments are hard to detect. The individual tomatoes attacked by the fruit worm are contaminated


211 with worms and worm frass. Currently, the percentage of worm infested tomatoes acceptable for processing is very low. Recently, the California Processing Tomato Advisory Board considered a proposal to allow more insect fragments in processed tomato shipments. However, it was believed that consumers would prefer as few insect fragments as possible in processed tomatoes. The result was that there was no change in the allowable amount of insect damage in processed tomato shipments (20).


Summary The widespread use of synthetic pesticides has produced enormous benefits for U.S. consumers. Fresh fruit and vegetables are inexpensive and available on a year round basis. The appearance and quality of produce is maintained to high standards because of the effectiveness of chemicals in controlling diseases and insects. The introduction of synthetic chemicals in the late 1940's and early 1950's led to a tremendous yield increase in U.S. food production and has made it possible for most foods to be sold at a low price.

Literature Cited 1. National Research Council. Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children; National Academy Press: Washington, DC, 1993, Chapter 1; pp 13. 2. Wilhelm, S; Paulus, A.O. Plant Dis. 1980, 64, 264-270. 3. Yarborough, D.E.; Bhlowmik, P.C. Acta Hort. 1989, 241, 347. 4. USDA. Agricultural Statistics 1995-1996; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1996, Chapter IV; p 11. 5. Marlatt, C.L. Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture 1904, pp 461-474. 6. USDA. Potatoes; Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Statistical Bulletin No. 122; Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1983; pp 30. 7. Consumer Reports 1998, January, 12-18. 8. Hinson, R; Boudreaux, J. Projected Costs for Selected Louisiana Vegetable Crops, 1996 Season; A.E.A. Information Series No. 142, Louisiana State University: 1996. 9. Klonsky, K.; Tourte, L.; Chaney, D.; Livingston, P.; Smith, R. Cultural Practices and Sample Costs for Organic Vegetable Production in the Central Coast of California; Giannini Foundation Information Service Series No. 92-4, University of California: 1994; pp 28, 33, 37, 41, 45. 10. Majek, B.A. Proceedings of the Thirty-ninth Annual Meeting of the Northeastern Weed Science Society 1985, 39, 124-125. 11. Schneider, P. The New York Times June 20, 1993, 1, 11. 12. Environmental Working Group. Pesticide Industry Propaganda: The Real Story; Washington, DC, 1995; pp 8-9. 13. USDA. Noncitrus Fruits and Nuts, 1994 Summary; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1995. 14. USEPA. The Economic Impacts and Social Benefits of Daminozide Use on Apples: An Empirical Study, April 1985. 15. USDA/Pennsylvania Dept. of Agriculture. 1992 Pennsylvania Orchard & Vineyard Survey; 1993; p9.



212 16. USDA/New York State Department of Agriculture and Markets. Marketing New York State Apples, 1993 Crop. 17. Rosenblum, G. On the Way to Market: Roadblocks to Reducing Pesticide Use on Produce; Public Voice for Food and Health Policy: Washington, DC, 1991; pp 34-46. 18. van Ravenswaay, E.; Hoehn, J. Willingness to pay for reducing pesticide residues in food: Results of a nationwide survey; Staff Paper No. 91-18, Michigan State University: East Lansing, 1991. 19. Pimentel, D.; Kirby, C.; Shroff, A. In The Pesticide Question Environment, Economics, and Ethics; Pimentel, D.; Lehman, H., Ed.; Chapman & Hall: New York, NY, 1993; pp 85-105. 20. Zalom, F. G.; Jones, A. J. Econ. Entom. 1994, 87, 181-186.


Pesticides - ACS Publications - American Chemical Society

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