November, 1925
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
1105
Petroleum Motor Fuel’ By K. G. Mackenzie THE TEXASCOMPANY, NEW YORK,N. Y.
conservation is largely up to the consumer, by securing greater efficiency in the gasoline he uses, and thus reducing the consumption for a given amount of work performed. This can be accomplished by the individual consumer, first by using every care to prevent excessive consumption of gasoline in his car, and second, by demanding of the automotive manufacturers t h a t more efficient motors be manufactured. Unfortunately, however, both of these reforms seem to be contingent upon a n increase of price, and while the law of supply and demand is allowed to operate unrestricted, real conservation of gasoline will result only from increased cost of production in this country, or a decrease in the total production, forcing us to use higher priced foreign crude petroleum.
There is believed to be no immediate danger of exhaustion of crude petroleum in the United States, with a resulting cessation in the production of gasoline. There are enormous oil reserves elsewhere in the world, part of which, a t least, will be available for our use. However, petroleum resources, both in this country and in the world, are not being replenished a t the rate a t which they are being withdrawn, and the conservation of these reserves is a subject worthy of serious consideration. Great strides have been made by the oil industry in increasing the percentage of gasoline obtainable from crude petroleum by means of cracking, and actual losses, both in the production and refining of petroleum products have been reduced to a very small figure. Future
....... ...... *
HE scope of the term “petroleum motor fuel” is large, if we consider as motors all internal combustion engines.
T
From the gasoline of the automobire through the kerosine of the tractor, the distillate fuel oil of the semiDiesel type of engine, to the residual fuel oil for the strictly Diesel type, we see that crude petroleum itself and most of its products are applicable as fuel for particular types of motors. This consideration will be restricted to the question of gasoline. We are a t once confronted with the question“What is gasoline?” I n the Committee on Petroleum Products and Lubricants of the American Society for Testing Materials, we have attempted to define this product, thus: Gasoline. A refined petroleum naphtha which by its composition is suitable for use as a carburant in internal combustion engines.
This definition is again contingent upon the definition for naphtha, which is:
’
Petroleum Naphtha. A generic term applied to refined or unrefined petroleum products and liquid products of natural gas, not less than 10 per cent of which distils below 347’ F. (175 ’ C.) and not less than 95 per cent of which distils below 464” F. (240’ C . ) , when subjected t o distillation in accordance with the current method of test of the American Society for Testing Materials for petroleum products of this nature.
Attention should immediately be directed to the fact that the governing characteristic is distillation. It would seem a t this late date to be almost unnecessary to speak of the use of specific gravity in gasoline specifications, since specific gravity does no more than tell the number of pounds per gallon. However, some of our states, such as Wisconsin, still have laws requiring that gasoline have a certain specific gravity, and that this specific gravity be posted, ignoring entirely the distillation test which is the best criterion we have a t the present time for volatility. Kor is i t true that gasoline is a n indefinite petroleum distillate containing as niuch of the kerosine fraction as the manufacturer and retailer can work off. While in certain parts of the country i t is possible for a retail dealer to buy both gasoline and kerosine, and market a blend of the same, this blending is becoming very infrequent owing to the state laws definitely specifying the quality of the gasoline which 1 Presented as part of t h e Symposium on Motor F u e l and Oil Conservation before the intersectional meeting of the American Chemical Society, New York, N. Y.,September 29. 1925.
may be sold within the state limits. This quality is very largely governed by the distillation test, and in prescribing the proper distillation test the various states have largely followed the lead of the Federal Specifications Board of the U. S. Government. The specification of this board, therefore, is assuming increased importance as the national standard for gasoline, even though the specification per se was drawn only to control government purchases. Table I-Motor Date effective 1917 11-25-19 10-31-22 1925 (proposed)
Gasoline. U. S. Government Specifications Distillation Test-Maxima - - D I S T I L L A T I OTEMPERATURES, N F.Start 140 140 131
...
20% 221 221 221 221
45% 275
... .. . ...
50%
...
284 284 284
90% 356 374 392 392
End 428 437 437
.. .
The first general government specification for gasoline was established in 1917, soon after we entered the World War (Table I). The distillation requirements of this specification provided for an Engler flask with 100-cc. charge. The 1917 specification was later adopted by the Presidential Committee on Standardization of Petroleum Specifications, and was modified by this committee on Xovember 25, 1919, as shown in the table. Later this committee was superseded by the Interdepartmental Petroleum Specifications Cdmmittee, which in October, 1922, changed the specification still further. Since then, the Interdepartmental Committee has been absorbed as a unit of the Federal Specifications Board, and it has proposed for consideration the elimination of both the initial boiling point and the end point. It will be seen from Figure 1 that there has been comparatively little change in the distillation of gasoline during the last eight years, the 20 and 50 per cent requirements having remained constant, the largest increase being in the 90 per cent point. The future outlook for increased supplies of gasoline is disappointing from the standpoint of revolutionary technical discoveries or developments. We cannot look forward to the chemist making 10 gallons of gasoline “where but one now grows.” We are dealing with a fuel, and although technical improvements in the use of gasoline will undoubtedly very materially increase the efficiency obtained per gallon, continued and increased production of gasoline must depend upon the continued and increased source of supply. As a source of supply for gasoline, we have two productscrude petroleum and wet, or gasoline-containing, natural gas.
I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
1106
Crude Petroleum
Table 111-World's Production 1857 to 1924 (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Year Production Year Production Year Production 1857 2 1880 30 018 1903 191,880
I n attempting to form some estimate of the future supplies of crude petroleum, it is desirable first to consider the history of crude petroleum production, both in this country and abroad.
1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 IS69 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879
United States'Production
Although crude oil was sold as a patent medicine in the eighteen twenties, it was not until 1859 that Drake drilled the first oil well in Titusville, and it is particularly interesting that the principal incentive which led to the drilling of this first well was Silliman's classic investigation* of a sample of surface oil, which indicated the valuable uses to which this oil could be put. While today it is a favorite pastime to bewail the lack of chemistry in the petroleum industry, it should be remembered, a t least, that the start of this industry was due to a chemist. It will be noted in Table I1 that the increase in production in the United States was very gradual, and i t was not until the year 1916, when the total reached 300 million barrels that production began to increase by leaps and bounds, the production in 1924 being considerably more than twice that of 1916. Table 11-United S t a t e s Production 1857 to 1925 (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Year Production Year Production Year Production
1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 0
.... ....2
1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 IS87 1888 1.889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902
1903 1904 1905 1906 500 2 114 1907 3:057 1908 2,611 1909 1910 2 116 2'498 1911 3:59s 1912 3,347 1913 1914 3,646 1915 4,215 5,261 1916 1917 5,205 1918 6,293 1919 9,894 1920 10 927 1921 8:788 1922 9,133 1923 13 350 1924 15:397 19,914 1925' Total production up to and including 1924.. , , .7,905,931 Estimated from the first 5 months' production.
..
World Production
With the exception of such gasoline as has been obtained from the Mexican crudes, and such as is now being produced from Venezuelan crude, practically all the gasoline produced in this country from crude petroleum has been from domestic crudes. The time, however, undoubtedly will arrive when i t will be necemary for us to avail ourselves of foreign crudes. I n this study, therefore, the world production as compared with the United States production is of interest. While the increase in world production (Table 111) has been somewhat more uniform than in the United States, it is, nevertheless, seen that the ratio of 1916 on also holds here. This is, of course, to be expected, since the United States has produced a very large percentage of the total world production, varying from 99 per cent in 1861 to 41 per cent in 1901, and amounting to 70 per cent for the year 1924. The general trend is indicated in Figure 3, and whereas this has remained fairly constant for a number of years, or indeed has shown a slight upward trend, the prospects of increased foreign production point to the probability of a gradual decrease in this percentage. The total world production through 1924 has been 12,409,854,000 barrels, of which the United States contributed 7,905,931,000 barrels or 63.7 per cent. 1 Johns,
THIS JOURNAL, 15, 446 (1923).
Vol. 17, No. 11
4
6
609 2 131 3:092 2,763 2,304 2 716 3'899 3'709 3:990 4 696 5:799 5,730 6,877 10,838 11,933 9,977 11 051 15:754 18,417 23.601
1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 IS88 IS89 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 I900 1901 1902
31:993 36,704 30,255 35,969 36,765 47,243 47,807 52,165 61,507 76,633 91,100 88,739 92,038 89,336 103,663 114,159 121,949 124;925 131,144 149,132 167,434 182.006
1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924
218,204 216,292 213,415 264,245 285553 298:616 327,938 344,174 352,447 383,547 403,746 427,740 459,412 508687 514:729 555796 695:281 765,928 858715 1017'100 1:012:927
Production of Crude Petroleum
Crude petroleum occurs in traps in sedimentary rocks in anticlines, faults, crevices, or lenticular masses. The most general occurrence is in anticline formation. This indicates the great degree of uncertainty both as to the occurrence of the oil and extent of oil fields. Furthermore, it may occur at almost any depth, but naturally the greater the depth the less chance there is of surface indication and the greater the difficulty of forecast. Also, the sand bodies containing oil are irregular when laid down, so the extent of a given oil-bearing sand is often very difficult to estimate. Coal reserves can be approximately forecast by the core method, for at least coal has the advantage that it stays put and will not flow away before it can be captured. Oil, however, has a tendency to wander, owing both to the effects of pressures and temperatures, and to the flow of water in the sands. Variations in porosity of the sands add considerable uncertainty as to the amount of oil in a given field, the more compact the sand the less the oil content. As an illustration, in the Moffat pool in Colorado three wells were recently
'
$
400
374 356
E
p rg l?
gs
ZZI
zoo
k 527 /oo /917
/9/8 /9/9 /920 /92/ /922 /92J /924 /925
Figure 1-Motor Gasoline-U. S. G o v e r n m e n t Specifications D i s t i l l a t i o n Test 100 Cc. M a x i m u m R e a d i n g s
drilled, each well having as good prospects as the other from the standpoint of geological formation. The first well came in with 4580 barrels, the third well with 2200 barrels, while the second well with only 41 barrels. Likewise, drainage adds a considerable degree of uncertainty to the possible oil reserve in a given field. A good example, showing the extent of drainage, is that of the Bibi Eibat field in Russia. I n that field 27 acres produced 50 million barrels of oil, or approximately enough oil to fill a reservoir the full 27 acres in area, and to a depth of 270 feet. Naturally, but a small amount of this oil came from directly beneath this area, the major part being drained from sur-
November, 1925
I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
rounding areas. Thus, when the limits of a given field are well indicated by a number of wells, there is still some uncertainty as to the amount of oil which one can eventually expect to obtain. Water introduces an element of uncertainty in possible future production. Where the oil occurs in sands water encroachment is gradual, but in cavernous limestones a producing well may turn to water overnight. This has been well illustrated in the Mexican oil fields, where a well producing
-
,.
1107
the favorable structures occurring in a sedimentary area. I n the past he has had to depend very largely upon surface indications, and there are, of course, oil areas that have no surface indications of oil. A good example of this is the Smackover field in Arkansas, which is largely responsible for giving Arkansas fourth place among producing states in this country. A study of well records and core drilling is now, however, materially aiding the geologist in determining subsurface structure and in locating oil fields where the oilbearing structure is not revealed on the surface. The Thomas pool in Oklahoma, which is now producing 10,000 barrels per day, was located entirely by core drilling. The geologist is also being assisted by the physicist in the use of the torsion balance and the seismograph. The use of the torsion balance is based on the difference in gravitational attraction of bodies of different densities, and indicates the occurrence of heavy bodies close to the surface. It is thus of particular value in locating salt domes in which oil occurs in the Gulf Coast field. The torsion balance is checked by the seismograph, which is well known to every one in its use for recording earthquakes. It shows speed and variations in vibrations transmitted through the earth’s crust. A charge of dynamite is exploded a t a given point and records are made at surrounding points.
Methods of Increasing Production Figure 2-U.
S. a n d World Production of Crude Petroleum
55,000 barrels of oil one day has owthe following day produced an equal quantity of water with very little oil. The Persian production occurs in the same type of formation and may possibly experience the same difficulties with water encroachment. Gas is always found where oil is found, and often gas is found without the accompanying oil. Where found without oil the result of drilling from the standpoint of oil production is necessarily nil, and its value, a t least from the standpoint of gasoline, is limited to a possible gasoline content. Where gas is mixed with oil, however, it has considerable value in bringing the oil to the surface, and the present endeavor in oil production is to make this gas bring to the surface the largest amount of oil possible. The uncertainties involved in oil drilling, both from the standpoint of getting only gas, or getting nothing, are well illustrated by the drilling records for a number of years back, based upon producing oil wells, gas wells, and dry holes, as shown in Table IV.
Where no water is present with oil, and production of oil by flowing and pumping ceases, a large quantity of oil is necessarily left in the sands. An. artificial hydrostatic pressure can sometimes be applied by pumping water in one well and forcing the oil out in an adjoining well. This has been well demonstrated in the Bradford fields in Pennsylvania and New York, where oil has been produced by flooding equal to 126 per cent of the oil previously produced by flowing and pumping. It might be added that it is estimated, from drilling and examination of the cores, that 60 per cent of the oil still remains in the sand. The geological survey further proposes following up the flooding by water with the use of a solution which will reduce the adhesion of the oil to sand
Table ItT-Wells Comoleted in t h e United S t a t e s 1909-1922 Per cent oil Year Oil Gas Drv Total to total -~
II
1048 13,875 1’500 11,018 1’580 9,818 1:811 12,512 2 207 19,101 2:327 16,668 2 022 9,154 18,777 1:803 16,590 1,966 2 229 17,845 21,052 2:135 24,273 2,274 14,666 2,111 2,024~ 17,333. California gas and dry wells not reported.
75.71 73.75 71.36 72.84 73.69 72.04 64.66 76.27 70.88 69.47 72.18 71.58 66.86 70.210
Aids in Finding Oil
The function of the geologist is to tell us where oil will not be found, as well as where it may possibly be found. Oil is not likely to be found in any rocks older than Cambrian. As a matter of fact, no oil has as yet been found in Cambrian structure. Furthermore, the geologist is able to point out
I
I
/850
/860
Figure 3-Per
l
/860 /890 B O O /9/0 /9M cent of Crude Produced by U. S. t o World
l
/870
particles, and has recommended sodium bicarbonate for this purpose. Here is a problem well worth the attention of the chemist. Compressed air or gas has also been used for the same purpose, and with somewhat similar results. It should be borne in mind, however, that flooding or the use of compressed air or gas is not universally applicable because of difference in
INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
1108
the nature and texture of the sand. It therefore can be employed only in those particular localities most favorable for its use. When an oil-producing well goes to water, it is sometimes possible to bring in isolated patches of oil by continued pumping of water from the well. This has been practiced to a certain extent, although most of the pumping now being done is for the purpose of keeping this water from other wells. Mining of petroleum has been carried out at Pechelbronne in Alsace for a number of years. They have been able to secure 10 per cent of the oil by drilling, 45 per cent more by tunneling and most of the remaining by mining the sand. The Pechelbronne deposit, however, is only 600 to 900 feet below the surface. Mining of petroleum will be used undoubtedly in the near future, and indeed, production of crude petroleum by this means has already been started in Roumania. DEEPER DRILLI Ne-Deeper drilling always offers prospects for increased production from a given field, as well as production from areas which have formerly been considered as nonproducing. I n 1915 a well of 3000 feet was considered as an average deep test, whereas a t the present time this has been increased to 4000 feet. Wells have been successfully drilled in California to over 6000 feet. Depth of drilling at the present time is limited both by technic and strength of material. It is difficult to secure pipe strong enough to support itself a t a depth of 7000 feet, although pipe manufacturers are improving this constantly. As an example of an oil field brought in by deeper drilling, that of Mexia might be cited. This field produced gas from shallow wells for years, and finally by deeper drilling a very large production was brought in. Future Production in United States
The question now arises-what will be the future production of the United States and what are our present crude petroleum reserves? Let us first review our present production. Table V-United
States Production, 1924, by States (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Per cent Per cent Arkansas 46028 6 447 New York 1,440 0 . 2 0 2 California 228:933 32: 066 Ohio 6,811 0.954 Colorado 445 0 . 0 6 2 Oklahoma 173.538 24.307 Illinois 8,081 1.132 Pennsylvania 7,486 1.049 Indiana 935 0.131 Tennessee 10 0.001 Kansas 28836 4 039 Texas 134,522 18.842 Kentucky 7:407 1:038 West Virginia 5,920 0.829 1,ouisiana 21,124 2 . 9 5 9 Wyoming 39,498 5.532 Montana 2,815 0.394 Miscellaneous 13 0.002 New Mexico 98 0 . 0 1 4
The distribution of production in the United States for 1924 is shown in Table V. It will be noted that California leads, followed by Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, Wyoming, Kansas, and Louisiana; while the state of Pennsylvania, the birthplace of the petroleum industry, produced but slightly over 1 per cent. This recalls the alleged forecast of the late John D. Archbold, who is said to have stated that he would drink every drop of oil produced in this country outside of the state of Pennsylvania. This was, the writer believes, the first forecast of our petroleum reserves. Forecasts are, of course, dangerous and uncertain things, but i t is interesting to consider the trend of the forecasts which have been made and to compare them with actual developments. (Table VI) The first forecast made on a scientific basis was that of David T. Day in 1908. According to his minimum figures, all the oil in this country will be exhausted in two years. The maximum, of course, gives us a considerable leeway. Day divided his forecast into the various fields, and the maximum figure of oil reserves for the Midcontinent field has al-
Vol. 17, No. 11
ready been exceeded in actual production, while according to his minimum figures, the Illinois and Gulf Coast fields would also have already ceased to produce. Table VI-Future
Production i n the United States
(In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Forecast of D a y , 1908 Forecast of Arnold, 1914 Minimum reserves 8,014,864 Reserves 5,763,100 Maximum reserves 22,514,864 Actual production, 19151924, inc. 4,570,472 Actual production, 19091924, inc. 5,920,793 Forecast of U.S.Geological Survey, 1915 Forecast of While, 1918 Reserves 7,704,000 Reserves 6,740,000 Actual production, 1919Actual production, 19161924, inc. 4,289,368 1924, inc. 3,297,357 Joint Forecast of U. S.Geological Survey and American Associalion of Pclroleum Geologists, 1921 Reserves 9,150,000 Actual production, 1922-1924, inc. 2,003,878
This forecast was followed in 1914 by one of Arnold. Arnold did not use the maximum and minimum method of Day, but gave definite oil reserves. The production from 1915 to 1924, inclusive, would give us less than two years’ supply throughout the entire country, and according to Arnold’s estimates by fields, Kansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Texas would already have ceased to produce. Again, we should remember that Texas held third place last year in the production of oil, and Louisiana sixth. This forecast of Arnold was followed by one of the U. S. Geological Survey in 1915. Against this, the production for the years 1916 to 1924 a t the present rate of production will give us four years more before all the oil in this country is exhausted. The estimate by White in 1918 was very closely aligned with the figures of the Geblogical Survey in 1915. According to his figures, a t our present rate of production it will be about four and a half years before all the oil in this country is gone. The most comprehensive survey which has been made up to this year was made jointly by the U. S. Geological Survey and the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, from which it is estimated that we have a reserve which a t the present rate of production will be exhausted in nine and a half years. These forecasts are not cited in a spirit of criticism or to indicate the incompetency of petroleum geologists. They do, however, show the general trend, which has been that the forecasts have been ridiculously low, and that the general tendency of each forecast is toward a greater oil reserve. This in a way is but natural, both because of increased production and new fields which are constantly being opened up. We now come to the latest and most complete forecast of our petroleum reserves. I n consequence of the creation by the President of the United States of the Federal Oil Conservation Board, the directors of the American Petroleum Institute appointed a committee of eleven to investigate the oil resources of the United States. This committee has just presented a report comprising a volume of about 250 pages.3 The report discusses not only the future supply of crude petroleum and gasoline, but the future probable demand. The Committee of Eleven in reviewing previous forecasts has realized the futility of attempting to guess a t the amount of oil now existing in undiscovered fields or in present producing fields a t greater depths, and has limited its computations to present wells and to proved areas which are known to be productive. It estimates that from present wells and from such proved areas by the present methods of flowing and pumping we still have available 5,321,427,000 barrels, and that after this oil has been withdrawn there will still remain in the ground in these areas approximately 26 billion barrels of oil. How much of this can be recovered is a “American Petroleum, Supply and Demand.”
New York, 1916.
ILVDYS’TRIAL AND EAVGIXEERISG CHE;VISTRY
Sovember, 1925
problematical, but there is no question but that when the demand warrants the necessary expense the various crude petroleum producing methods which have already been mentioned, such as flooding, mining, and the use of compressed air or gas, will be brought into play, resulting in the recovery of a considerable amount of this oil. Further production will be obtained either from deeper drilling or from new fields. In the discovery of new fields t’he Conimittee of Eleven estimates t’hat the favorable areas in this country amount to 1,105,454,4513acres, while the unfal-orable areas, in which it is quite certain that no oil will be found, amount t’o 827,790,752 acres. The committee does not claim t>hat, oil will be found in every one of these one billion acres, but it believes that new fields are possible throughout this area st different points. The conclueioiis of the Coiinnittee of Eleven in the matter of future supplies are as folloivs::‘
has been almost entirely in the hands of the Soviet Government, but in spite of this handicap, Russia holds third place in the world’s production in 1924, and it is estimated that the Russian production for the fiscal year ending September, 1925, will be approximately 50 million barrels. It should be said in credit to the Soviet Government that not only is production increasing, but oil is being produced more economically. Immediate increase in production will, of course, depend entirely on the attitude of the Soviet Government. Transportation also is handicapped, and here again the government attitude will be the controlling factor.
Year
The world‘s production for 1924 is shown in Table VII, Llexico being the largest’ producer outside of the United States, producing nearly 14 per cent of the total world production. Table VII-United S t a t e s a n d Foreign Production, 1924 (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Per cent Per cent 713,940 7 0 . 5 Egypt 1,122) 139,497 1 3 . 8 Colombia 445 1 45,312 4 d France 426 32,373 3 . 2 Germany 406 20,473 2 . 0 Canada Roumania 13,303 1 . 3 Czechoslovakia 8,754 0 . 9 Italy Venezuela India 8,150 0 . 8 Algeria 7,812 0 . 8 Barbados Peru 5.657 0 . 5 Cuba Poland 41 Argentina 4,660 0 . 4 England 21 British Borneo (Sarawak) 4,163 0 . 4 Miscellaneous 97 Trinidad 4,057 0 . 4 Japan and Taiwan (Formosa) 1,959 0 . 2
.
hlExrco-The past production in Mexico is shown in Table VIII. The Mexican field is noted as having the largest single producing wells in the world, one well having produced between 90 and 100 million barrels over a period of nine years, still another producing 70 million barrels over a slightly longer period. The Mexican production by individual wells has always had a very great element of uncertainty, owing t o the tendency of these wells to go t o water. However, the decrease in production, which has been noted in the last three years, was due, not so much to water encroachment or exhaustion as to government interference. It is the general belief that Mexico still contains large reserves, although increased production in the immediate future is very largely hampered by the government attitude.
Year 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908
Table VIII-Mexico Production by Years ( I n Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Production Year Production Year Production 10 1909 2,714 1917 55,293 40 1910 3,634 1918 63.828 75 1911 12,553 1919 87,073 126 1912 16,558 1920 163,540 251 1913 25,696 1921 193,298 503 1914 26,235 1922 182,278 1,005 1915 32,911 1923 149,583 3,933 1916 39.817 1924 139,497
Rwssw-The Russian production by years is shown in Table IX. It may be noted that the Russian production reached a maximum in the year 1902, and varied somewhat below this maximum figure until 1917, when production dropped off markedly, owing not only t o the Bolshevik regime, but also to war conditions and foreign invasion. Since then this production 4
“American Petroleum, Supply and Demand.”
hrew York, 1926, p . 3.
Table IX-Russia Production by Years ( I n Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Production Year Production Year Production 1884 10,805 1905 54,960 1906 1885 13,925 08,897 18,006 1907 61,851 1886 1887 18,368 1908 62,186 1888 23,049 1909 65,970 1889 24,fi09 1910 70,337 1890 28,691 1911 66,184 34,573 68,019 1891 1912 1892 35,775 1913 62,834 1893 40,457 1914 67,021 1894 :36,375 1915 68,548 1895 46,140 1916 65,817 63,072 1896 47.221 1917 1897 54,400 191s 27,168 31,752 1898 61,R09 1919 1899 63,955 1920 25,430 1900 75,779 1921 28,968 1901 S5,169 1922 35,692 1902 50,540 1923 39,156 1903 75,591 1924 45,312 1904 78,537 ~~~
1-There is no immediate danger of the exhaustion of the petroleum resources of the United States. 2-It is reasonable to assume that a sufficient supply of oil will be available for national defense and for essential uses in the United States beyond the time when science will limit the demand by development of a more efficient use of or substitutes for oil, or will displace its use as a source of power by harnessing natural energy. Foreign F u t u r e Production
1109
Russia is immensely rich in petroleum reserves. It has three fields of over 1000 acres area each, which have each produced over 200,000 barrels of oil per acre. Golubiatnikoff, a Russian geologist, has estimated that the Apscheron peninsula, having an area not over 1200 square miles, has a n oil reserve of 11,500,000,000 barrels, which is approximately twice the reserves estimated by the Committee of Eleven of the American Petroleum Institute to be obtained in the United States from present wells and proved areas by flowing and pumping. This estimate may be high, but considering Russia as a whole there is considerable probability that the total oil reserves may be greater than those of the United States. The remainder of Russia, outside of the southwestern area, has been very poorly prospected, although oil has been found from the Arctic Ocean to Baku, and as far east as the Gobi desert. Furthermore, practically nothing is known of Siberia and there is every probability that in such a widely extending area, oil will be found in considerable quantities. PERSIA-Persia occupies fourth place in the world production. Production by years is shown in Table X. The increase in Persian production in a few years has been enormous, and is very rapidly increasing. Two oil fields have been developed, only one of which is producing. Both of these fields are controlled by one company, and immediate future production will depend very largely upon the policy adopted by this company. The chairman of this company in his report of November 25, 1924, stated5that production a t that time was a t the rate of 34,650,000 barrels per year, which was the maximum quantity they were then able to dispose of, and much of the production had been closed in. He also stated that the company’s production could be brought up to 77 million barrels per year by opening of existing wells and could be furthermore augmented within a few months by additional drilling. The Persian field is very similar to the Mexican field in having wells of large individual production, one well having produced 46 million barrels since 1911. In average production per well i t is the richest oil field in the world. I t is probable that production will continue undiminished and will undoubtedly increase for some time to come, the only possible danger being water encroachment similar t o that encountered in hlexico. Up to the present time no water has been found Table X-Persia Production by Years (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Year Production Year Production 1913 1,857 1919 10,139 1914 2,910 1920 12,230 1915 3,616 1921 16,673 1916 4,477 1922 22,247 1917 7,147 1923 26,9*50 191s 8,623 1924 32,373
DUTCHEASTINDIES-The production of the Dutch East Indies, which holds the next place in oil production (Table XI), is increasing gradually and undoubtedly would increase to a 6
Degolyer, “Production of Petroleum in 1924.”
A.I.M.E., p . 37.
1110
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEiWSTRY
greater extent were it not for government and legislative interference. It is conservatively believed, however, that the Dutch East Indies will probably continue to produce a t least a t the present rate for a long period of time.
Year 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903
Table XI-Dutch East Indies Production by Years (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Production Year Production Year Production 600 1904 1915 6,508 11 920 1905 688 7,850 1916 12:547 1906 1917 1,216 8,181 13,180 1907 1918 12.778 1,427 9,983 1908 1919 2,552 10,283 15 508 1909 11,042 1920 17’529 2,964 1910 1921 16:958 1,796 11,031 1911 2.253 12,173 1922 16,720 1912 1923 19&38 4;014 10 846 11:172 1913 1924 20,473 2,430 1914 11,422 5,770
RouMANu-Production in Roumania (Table XII) shows a drop during the latter part of the war, but the 1924 production is practically up t o the previous maximum production of ,1913. Increase in production in the immediate future is hampered by government interference, as for instance the requirement that new grants of oil lands will be made only to companies having a t least 55 per cent Roumanian control. It seems probable that there will be, irrespective of legislation, no large increase in production, but that the present production will continue for a number of years to come.
Year 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1806 1867 1808 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879
Table XII-Roumania Production by Years (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Production Year Production Year Production 1903 2 1880 1r4 2,763 1904 122 4 1881 3,599 1905 137 4 1882 4,421 1906 1883 139 9 6,378 1907 1884 211 8,118 17 1908 193 1885 8 252 23 1909 9:327 169 1886 28 1910 9,724 182 1887 33 1911 219 1888 11,107 39 1912 1889 12,976 298 43 1913 13,555 383 1890 51 1914 1891 12,827 488 55 1915 593 1892 59 12 030 1916 1893 8’945 536 84 1917 1894 3:721 507 90 1918 575 1895 91 8 730 1919 543 1896 6’614 104 1920 7:435 571 1897 103 1921 8,368 776 1898 109 1922 9,843 1899 1,426 111 1923 1900 1,629 10,867 109 1924 1901 1,678 13,303 109 1902 2,060 110
VENEZUELA-The. Venezuelan production (Table XIII) is confined practically t o the last four years. This production is mainly from the Maracaibo basin. It is estimated that production for 1925 will be about 20 million barrels, and that this production will increase for a number of years to come. The Maracaibo basin is located on tide water, and the southern interior of the country is practically untouched. It is possible that reserves will be found here in even greater quantities than in the Maracaibo district. Table XIII-Venezuela Production by Years (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Year Production Year Production 120 1921 1433 1917 1918 333 1922 2:201 425 1923 4,059 1919 457 1924 8,754 1920
INDxk-The Indian production, which is almost entirely from the Burmah field (Table XIV), has remained practically constant for a number of years back. It is believed that the Indian production has about reached its limit, and that the development of new producing areas will not much more than offset the decline in the Burmah field. Table XIV-India Production by Years (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Year Production Year Production Year Production 1913 7930 1901 1,431 1889 94 1914 7:410 1902 1,617 118 1890 1915 8,203 1903 2,510 190 1891 1916 8,491 1904 3385 242 1892 1917 8,079 1905 4:137 1893 299 1918 8 188 1906 4,016 327 1894 1919 8’736 1907 4,344 372 1895 1920 4375 1908 5,047 430 1896 1921 8,734 1909 6,677 646 1897 1922 8,529 1910 6 138 542 1898 1923 8,320 1911 6’451 941 1899 1924 8,150 1912 7:117 1900 1,078
Vol. 17, No. 11
PERU-PerU has been producing consistently for a number of years (Table XV). The increase has been gradual, but the oil is of high grade, is of light-gravity, high-gasoline content, and produces, in general, excellent lubricating oil. The production is confined entirely to a small area on the coast, and the interior has not as yet been prospected. There are good reasons to believe that much greater production will come from the interior. However, this may be hampered by topographical difficulties. Beyond question there is a large oil reserve in Peru. Table XV-Peru Production by Years (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Year Production Year Production Year Production 1896 48 1906 536 1916 2 551 ~
1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905
71 71 89 275 275 287 278 346 448
1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 is14 1915
756 1.011 1;316 1,330 1368 1:751 2,133 1,918 2,487
1917
iQi8
1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924
~
2:533 2,527 2 628 2’817 3’699 5:314 5 699 7:812
OTHER COUNTRIES-In other parts of the world having considerable oil reserves: In Argentine the production has been hampered by government interference. Bolivia has oil, but here topographical difficulties have retarded exploitation up to the present. Africa is untouched, except for Egypt, and while it is not believed that this country is particularly inviting and that it wiu compare as a producer with Russia or the United States, it,ls nevertheless probable that oil will be found. China is practically untouched. I t would seem impossible that so large an area will not produce oil, although the effect of China’s production on the gasoline situation in this country is somewhat doubtful, owing to the very large population, which will undoubtedly absorb this oil locally. New Zealand and also Australia are possible, although Australia’s importance may be due to shale rather than oil. Certain shales in Australia produce as high as 125 gallons of oil toIa ton of shale. F u t u r e Cost of Crude Petroleum
UNITEDSTATES-Whih the question of supply and demand will, of course, very largely govern future production in the United States, there is every indication that the cost of this production will increase. As an example, leases in Oklahoma oil fields have doubled in price within the last five years, and owing to the necessity for deeper drilling the average cost per well in the Midcontinent field, generally, increased from $15,000 in 1915 to $25,000 in 1925. While the discoveries of new wells in isolated locations in shallow sands may produce cheaper oil, it is believed that the general trend will be toward higher average cost. FOREIGN-Topographical difficulties will play a large part in the cost of future foreign production, particularly in northern South America. Much of this production is behind the Andes, requiring long pipe lines. Furthermore, the climate is bad, and the cost of labor is high, owing not only to higher wages but to the low efficiency of the individual. It is believed, however, that improved sanitation will materially relieve the situation in this respect. Distance from the base of supplies is also a serious factor, and the cost of welldrilling generally is much higher than in the United States. The same diaculties due to topography and climate are also encountered in the Dutch East Indies. Use of Foreign Oil by United States
I n spite of interference by foreign governments, there will be much foreign production available for use in the United States. We have already brought in enormous quantities of oil from Mexico. The use of this foreign oil, however, is entirely contingent upon prices. When the cost of domestic crude petroleum reaches a point where it is more economical to import foreign oil, foreign oil will be used in preference to domestic oil. Indeed, it has already been prophesied that the t h e will eventually come when our pipe lines, instead of
November, 1925
1111
I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
transporting oil from the Midcontinent to the Atlantic Seaboard, will transport oil from the Seaboard to the Midcontinent. Gasoline from Crude Petroleum
Until the development of the internal combustion engine, gasoline was more or less a drug on the market, and many stories are told of the means used by the various refiners to dispose of it. Production figures on gasoline, therefore, are not obtainable with any degree of accuracy, during the early days of the industry, but are shown in Table XVI, beginning with 1914. It will be seen that the production has about doubled from 1920 to 1924, and production in 1924 is between six and seven times that of 1914. The relation of the gasoline production to crude production is shown in Figure 4. Table XVI-Gasoline Production-United S t a t e s 1914 to 1924 (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S . Gallons) Per cent Per cent gaqoline gasoline production production Total of crude Total of crude Year gasoline production Year gasoline production 1914 34,763 13.08 1920 116,251 26.25 1915 37,137 13.21 I921 122,704 25.99 1916 49,021 16.30 1922 147,672 26.49 1917 67,870 20.24 1923 179,903 24.56 1918 85,007 23.88 1924 213,325 29.88 1919 94,235 24.91
Gasoline may be obtained from crude petroleum either by simple distillation of the gasoline naturally occurring in the crude, or by cracking heavier oils with heat and pressure. DISTILLATION OF CRUDEPETROLEUM-The first of this year the United States Bureau of Mines started the accumulation of accurate data on the amount of gasoline produced in this country by cracking. Prior to that time the figures available include both cracked gasoline and straight-run gasoline-that is, that gasoline contained in the crude and produced by distillation a t atmospheric pressure so that no accurate figures are available of the gasoline produced by distillation of the crude petroleum. At the time the Mexican fields were assuming increased importance, it was the general feeling that the new fields to be discovered would be predominantly of the heavier grades, giving lower yields of straight-run gasoline and reducing the amount of gasoline produced, unless there could be compensation by cracking, However, discoveries of large production of light crude petroleum of high gasoline content, both in Oklahoma and California as well as in other fields, seemed to justify the assumption that in the general average as much straightrun gasoline will be contained in the crude petroleum produced in the future as has been obtained in the past. Increase in yield of straight-run gasoline from crude petroleum may be accomplished by more careful fractionation or by changing the distillation specifications by raising the upper distillation limits. The extent to which fractionation can be employed to increase the yield of gasoline, however, is definitely limited by the necessity of producing a certain quantity of kerosine. The kerosine and gasoline distillation ranges overlap. Kerosine, moreover, to burn satisfactorily in lamps and domestic stoves, employing wicks, must not be too high in viscosity. If the lower boiling hydrocarbons in kerosine are transferred to the gasoline cut, this of necessity must be counterbalanced by taking from the kerosine cut a certain proportion of the heaviest hydrocarbons, resulting in a greatly decreased yield. The relative prices of gasoline and kerosine, of course, are the controlling factors. The kerosine is essential for certain purposes and the final result may be the placing of the gasoline and kerosine on a similar price basis. Several years ago, when the rapid increase in motor vehicles was viewed with considerable alarm from the stand-
point of providing sufficient fuel, it was predicted that eventually gasoline would be composed of all the gasoline and all the kerosine of the crude. However, by referring back to the changes in the government specifications for gasoline during the last eight years, it will be seen that these changes have not been radical, and no very large increase in boiling range of gasoline is anticipated in the near future. Indeed, the present tendency of the automotive manufacturers seems to be, not to provide for heavy, less volatile fuels, but to secure the same result by getting greater efficiency from the present fuel by means of improved appliances. Furthermore, the great increase in cracking operations has enabled the petroleum industry to supply the requirements of the automotive industrv without markedly decreasing the volatility of gasoline. c R A C KI NG-T h e relation of cracked gasoline to straightrun gasoline and natural gas gasoline for the first seven months of 1925 is shown in Table XVII. It is possible to produce from a crude oil nothing but gasoline, fixed gas, and coke, but it is not practical either from an economic or f i n a n c i a l standpoint. I n this connection, however, it should be stated /quo0 -/3/4 /9/6- /s/8 T5z - / s z z / s Z 4 that c o n s i d e r a b l e Figure 4-U. S. Production of Crude confusion apparently P e t r o l e u m a n d Gasoline exists a t the present time as to tge nature of petroleum products which can be cracked. Most of the processes now in large commercial use will crack residual oils, as well as distillates, and whether a distillate from the crude or a residual oil is used depends upon the particular conditions in the particular refinery, principally as to ot,her products which must also be produced.
Ll
Table XVII-Gasoline
-STRAIOHT
January February March April May June July
Production i n United States January to July, 1925 NATURAL GAS GASO-
RUN-
Gallons Per cent 569 018 693 68 541:584:102 68 580,632,010 68 578,262,716 67 613,653,754 67 631,196,894 67 651,823,227 67
~ C R A C K E Gallons Per cent 209,939,643 25 194,064,342 25 215,468,405 25 221,268,904 26 244,241,621 26 252,895,550 27 259,353,708 27
LINE
Per Gallons cent 52,694,034 54,783,235 57,473,799 60,960,495 64,150,879 60,082,843 55,731,060
Further developments in cracking will undoubtedly be along lines of increased yields of gasoline, decreased yields of fixed gas, and more economical operation. ECONOMIC LIMITATIONS-AShas already been mentioned, it is possible to convert all the crude oil into gas, gasoline, and coke, but economically i t is not feasible. This is because we must have lubricants and fuel oil. Although appliances that must be lubricated will continue to increase in number, improved methods in the application and use of lubricants will, if not decreasing the demand, a t least partially compensate for this. A great deal has already been done in this improvement of application in the use of the force-feed system of lubrication in large plants as a substitute for the oil can. I n these systems the oil is forced from a reservoir through the various bearings, from there to settling tanks and
1112
I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
filters, and back to the storage, with the result that the oil is used over and over again. The same system is, of course, followed in steam turbines. The worst offenders in the wasteful consumption of lubricants are undoubtedly the automobiles. Homings has stated: “If methods of burning gasoline are wasteful today, the art of lubrication is primitive.” The installation of oil filters which, after being advocated for a number of years, has finally impressed itself upon the automobile manufacturers, will undoubtedly give a considerably decreased consumption per mile, and there is no reason why the automobile, from the standpoint of lubrication, should not at least approach the efficiency of the steam turbine. Horning6 estimates that the lubricating oil mileages taken as 100 per cent for 1925 will increase to 125 per cent in 1930 and 225 per cent in 1950. The question of the use of fuel oil for steam raising plants is subject to considerable argument pro and con, and need not concern us a t the present time. It is a fact, however, that for marine purposes, particularly in our Navy, fuel oil is almost essential, and for certain special industrial work, such as annealing furnaces, the use of fuel oil provides easier and more accurate control of furnace temperatures, and constitutes a demand which should be met if possible. For naval purposes the use of the Diesel engine in preference to steam power will, no doubt, in the future materially increase the efficiency of the fuel oil used. The fuel oil, however, as cracking increases will become more and more viscous, and to meet the gasoline demand and still supply fuel, it will be necessary for the users of fuel oil to install such equipment as may be necessary to handle this more viscous product. POSSIBLE YIELDSFRON CRUDEPETROLEUM BY CRACKINGBecause of these conditions it is very difficult to forecast the maximum amount of gasoline which may be produced from crude by cracking. The United States Bureau of Mines, however, estimates that at the present time the total gasoline produced from the crude petroleum amounts to 33 per cent’ of the crude oil run to stills, and the Committee of Eleven of the American Petroleum Institute believes that it is possible to increase this percentage to 55 per cent. Accordingly, in the estimates given below of possible gasoline production, the figure of 55 per cent on the crude production is used.
Gasoline from Natural Gas During the first six months of 1925 about 7 per cent of the total gasoline was produced from natural gas. The future supply of gasoline from this source will depend upon continued and increased production of wet natural gas and more complete recovery. There seems to be no question but that natural gas will continue to be found in about the same proportion as crude petroleum as has been maintained in the past. Various processes for the recovery of gasoline from natural gas have been quite well developed, and it is difficult to forecast any improvements which will result in greater yields or a more complete removal from the gas. The extent t o which the gasoline is removed from the gas is largely governed by financial conditions. As an example, lean natural gas, having but small gasoline content, may not justify gasoline removal at the present because of price, but this gasoline is always recoverable when the price warrants a fair return. The future development in the production of natural gas gasoline will be largely along the line of efficient fractionation of the resulting product. A very large part of the natural gas gasoline is now recovered from the natural gas by high compression. This high compression results not only in the liquefaction of the hydrocarbons boiling above 6
7
“American Petroleum, Supply and Demand,” p. 240. Ibid., p. 16.
Vol. 17, No. 11
atmospheric pressure, but also in the liquefaction of the lower boiling hydrocarbons. When the pressure is released the lower boiling hydrocarbons are given off as gas, carrying with them quantities of hydrocarbons, liquid a t atmospheric temperature and resulting in considerable loss. A careful fractionation of this compressed product should remove all of those hydrocarbons which either will not remain liquid or stay in solution at atmospheric temperature and pressure and give a product which will not be subject to large evaporation loss. Gas Gasoline Produced i n the United States 1911 to 1925 (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U. S. Gallons) Year Production Year Production 1911 177 1919 8,370 1912 288 1920 9,161 1913 573 1921 10,713 1914 1,016 1922 12,044 1915 1,656 1923 19,434 1916 2,464 1924 12,671 1917 5,188 1925 (7 mos.) 9 664 1918 6,727 1925 (estd.) 16:566
Table XVIII-Natural
Consumption In United S t a t e s
The increase in automotive registration during the past few years is shown in Table XIX. The foreign registration, which has been furnished by the Kational Automobile Chamber of Commerce, is shown for gears 1920 to 1924. There is considerable doubt, however, as to the accuracy of the figures preceding last year. The Committee of Eleven of the American Petroleum Institute has made an estimate of the future automotive engines in this country up to the year 1975, which is shown in Table XX. If the same consumption per automotive engine should hold in 1975 as in 1924, it wilI be seen that the gasoline requirements for that year would be enormous. However, there are already indications that great improvements will be made in automotive engines. In a communication from C. F. Kettering, of the General Motors Research Corporation, to R. L. Welch, General Secretary of the American Petroleum Institute, cited by the Committee of Eleven,*Mr. Kettering says: We believe that it is possible to make automobiles go twice as far per gallon of gasoline used. The present internal combustion engine and automobile only transforms on a n average of 5 per cent of the energy originally in the gasoline into usefuI work. It is possible a t present t o transform 10 per cent of this energy into useful work, and this will be common practice in the future. We feel that it is possible today, by correlating a number of things which are known in the modification of fuels and in the design of motors, to almost double the transportation efficiency of a gallon of gas. This is a thing which cannot come suddenly, but which will be a development throughout a period of years. It is only a question of modifying designs of engines, which need not be radical. Table XIX-Registration of Motor Vehicles United States Year Registrations Year Registrations Year Registrations 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 I900 1901 1902 1903 1904
4 16 90 800 3,200 8,000 14,800 23,000 32,920
55,000
Forergn
Year 1920
1921 1922 1923 1924
6
Registrations 1 690 000 2:065:000 2,270,000 2,932,000 3,672,771
“American Petroleum, Supply and Demand,” p.
Per cent foreign to world 15.5 16.5 15.0 16.3 17.3
236.
I-1-DCSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
November, 1923 Tald e XX.-Estimated Year 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1926 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975
Total automotive engines 9,672,000 10,880,000 12,663,000 15,526,000 1s,028,000 21,381,000 31,018,000 36,020,000 39,755,000 42,608,000 44,990,000 47,003,000 48,984,000 50,808,000 52,461,000 54,060,000
Future Automo Ntive Engine?s i n the United States Airplanes, Motor motorcycles, Passenger trucks motor boats automobiles 440,000 8,380,000 852,000 9,483,000 9so,ooo 417,000 1,279.000 424,000 10,960,000 433,000 13,540,000 1,553.000 436,000 15,461,000 2,131,000 18,400,000 481,000 2,500,000 618,000 27,400,000 3,000,000 720,000 31,500,000 3,800,000 975,000 4,700,000 34,080,000 5,
[email protected] 1,430,000 35,678,000 6,000,000 1,820,000 37,170,000 1,978,000 6,500,000 38,525,000 2,176,000 7,000,000 39,808,000 7,500,000 2,333,000 40,975,000 s,ooo,ooo 2,475,000 4 1,986,000 8,500,000 2,647,000 42,913,000
The Committee of Eleven has accordingly prepared an estimate of future gasoline requirements through to the year 1975, taking the yearly requirements for every fifth year, as is shown in Table XXI. The maximum demand here is obtained by multiplying the consumption per engine in 1924 by the estimated number of engines in each of these years. The minimum demand, by assuming such increase in efficiency of automotive engines, that the consumption per car will be only half of what it is a t the present day. If we take the figure of 35 per cent of the total crude production as the possible gasoline production, we find that the reserves of over 3 billion barrels in this country from present wells and present productive area will supply the estimated gasoline requirements of this country, using the maximum figures, to the year 1936 and the minimum figures to the year 1943. This, of course, does not mean that in 1943, a t the latest, our petroleum reserves will be exhausted, since it is impossible to believe that we will not continue to find and develop new fields in this country. Table XXI-Estimated Future Gasoline D e m a n d i n United States (In Thousands of Barrels of 42 U S. Gallons) Maximum Minimum Year gasoline demand gasoline demand 1920 101,207 1921 107,488 1922 127,907 159 172 1923 1924 iSS:28i 218,215 1925 109,107 157,722 315,444 1930 182,890 365,780 1935 1940 201,522 403,044 1945 215,780 43 1,560 227,774 455,549 1950 237,940 475,880 1955 247,944 495,888 1960 257,155 514,311 1965 1970 265.503 531,006 273,578 547,156 1975
I113
the opinion of the average man that not only is the waste large, but there is a large production of what he calls waste products. The subject of waste was one of the important questions raised by the President’s Oil Conservation Board. W. S. Farrish, president of the Humble Oil & Refining Co., a man of very extensive experience in the oil industry, in his reply9 to the government questionnaire, stated that i t was his belief that from the time the oil is brought to the surface until it is put into the stills at the refineries the actual preventable waste of oil itself is less than 0.1 per cent. Likewise, in the refining of crude oil practically the only loss is due to evaporation, which, by the installation of gas lines from stills and storage to compressors, is being reduced to a minimum. The careful fractionation of cracked gasoline to remove noncondensable gas is also reducing the loss in gasoline by evaporation during distribution. Increased Production per Barrel of Crude
The increased production per barrel of crude petroleum is again limited very largely by the other petroleum products which must be produced. As stated before, we must have lubricating oil and we must have fuel oil for certain purposes. The development of hydroelectric power may eventually lead to considerable conservation from the fuel oil standpoint, in replacing present fuel oil installations, particularly for steam raising purposes by electric energy. I’
1
1
I
,
’
~~~~
Foreign Consumption vs. United States Consumption
While the more general utilization of foreign crude petroleum production in this country for the production of gasoline will be controlled entirely by cost of domestic crude petroleum, it must be borne in mind that foreign automotive consumption will probably increase tremendously in the near future. It has already been noted that there has been a very large increase in foreign registration during the last five years, but in spite of this increase only 17 per cent of the total motor vehicles in the world are operated outside of the United States. As the number of motor vehicles abroad increases it will be followed by increased foreign consumption.
Conservation Conservation of gasoline can be accomplished by elimination of waste, if such occurs, by increased production of gasoline per barrel of crude and by more efficient utilization. Elimination of Waste
Waste in the oil industry is still a popular subject for discussion. Just what this waste may be is not clear, but it is
Figure &Gasoline
Prices a n d Value of Crude Petroleum Compared with 1913 Values
The question of choice of production of either gasoline or fuel oil will again depend entirely upon relative prices. When the price of gasoline reaches a point where it is more profitable to crack oil to gasoline than to use it as fuel, production of fuel oil will either decrease or its price will increase to a point where it is not profitable to crack it. Better Utilization
The greatest forward step in the conservation of gasoline will come from more efficient utilization. Horninglo has stated: “The miles per gallon for the country can be doubled within 15 years after price demands the change.” This is, of course, but natural, since when gasoline is very cheap there is little incentive toward more efficient utiliaation. This is reflected in the attitude of the ordinary automobile driver. While, as will be pointed out, he is very sensitive on the matter of price of gasoline, he, in general, does not concern himself particularly in securing maximum mileage by better carburetor adjustment. Indeed, the success of a number of gasoline dopes has been due to the fact that the operator is urged, after adding the dope, to adjust his carburetor. 9 10
N o t . Petroleum News, May 20, 1925, p. 30. “American Petroleum, Supply and Demand,” p 17.
INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
1114
Price of Gasoline
The price of gasoline therefore is a very important factor in conservation. It is also a point on which the American public generally is very sensitive. The cost of everything else from pins to steam yachts may increase without materially disturbing the equilibrium of our average citizen, but on the subject of carfare and the price of gasoline he is very much on the alert. The price of gasoline was laboriously investigated by the Federal Trade Commission in 1915, and Mr. LaFollette succeeded in filling many pages of testimony in 1923. Immediately after this investigation it was prophesied that gasoline would soon go to $1.00 per gallon. What is the exact situation as to the price of gasoline, 6rst in relation to crude petroleum? I n Figure 5 will be found curves for the average value of crude petroleum produced in this country compared with the Chicago tank-
Vol. 17, No. 11
line on this basis has been, with the exception of 1915, consistently below the price of crude petroleum on the same basis. Let us next consider the price of gasoline as compared with commodities and the cost of living. From Figure 6,II i t will be seen that here the trend has, in general, been the same, with the exception of the years 1916 and 1917. The wholesale prices, based upon 1913, have been above the cost of gasoline and the same thing holds true for the cost of living. I n spite of this fact, however, endeavors are still being made by the states and municipalities to reduce the price of gasoline further by selling retail at wholesale prices and charging distribution costs to state institutions, etc. As long as our Government forces the law of supply and demand to operate with complete freedom, we may expect such a condition until the exhaustion of our oil reserves or very greatly increased production costs result in increase in the price of gasoline, which will bring about conservation in its use, and while the Government has taken no action against the combination of the producers of agricultural products to reduce production for the purpose of raising prices, although production of agricultural products is no drain upon our resources, it absolutely prohibits any combination which will tend to conserve these resources. This is not intended as a criticism of the Government's attitude towards the producers of agricultural products, but if such combination is desirable in the case of farm products, it is even more desirable in the production of petroleum products, which cannot be reproduced each year from the soil and the atmosphere. Acknowledgment
Figure 6-Gasoline
Prices Compared w i t h Cost of Living a n d Wholesale C o m m o d i t i e s Prices
wagon prices of gasoline. The value of the crude is obtained by dividing the total value of the production, as estimated by the Geological Survey, by the production in barrels, the tankwagon prices being the average for each year. These values have been plotted on the basis of taking the 1913 value as 100 per cent. It will be seen that the price of gaso-
The writer desires to express his thanks to J. Edgar Pew, chairman of the Committee of Eleven of the American Petroleum Institute, for permission to quote from the report of the committee, and to A. C. Hunter and J. Terry Duce, of The Texas Company, for assistance particularly in the matter of foreign production. Wherever possible, statistics of the United States Department of the Interior have been used in figures on production, without being indicated in every case. 11
Taken from U. S. Department of Labor Statistics.
Preparation of an Ash-Free Wood Charcoal' By L. H. Reyerson SCEOOL OF CHEMISTRY, UNIV8RSlTY OF
MANY uses to which wood charcoal is put in laboratory ItionNoperations the inorganic impurities interfere with the acof the charcoal. It is further known that prolonged washing of a wood charcoal does not free it completely from the inorganic salts. The following procedure was found to give .a coconut charcoal practically ash-free: Coconut shells were first superficially cleaned, then broken up into convenient sizes and placed in a Soxhlet extractor having a diameter of 3 inches. The shells were then continuously extracted with ether for about 96 hours, followed by a like extraction with 96 per cent alcohol and finally by a similar one with distilled water. The shells were then removed from the extractor, dried, and coked in the usual manner. Later experiments indicate that the time may be cut to half of that indicated without impairing the process. 1
Received August 5, 1025.
MINNESOTA, MINNBAPOLIS, MI".
This charcoal gave an average ash content of 0.4 per cent, compared with 2.35 per cent for samples of an activated Dorsite. The charcoal was ashed to constant weight in a platinum crucible over a Meker burner. The water extract of the activated Dorsite was distinctly alkaline, whereas the extract from charcoal prepared in the manner described above was neutral. Qualitative examination of the ash from this charcoal showed it to be almost entirely silica, whereas a residue prepared by prolonged extraction of the activated Dorsite gave qualitative tests for the following ions: sodium, potassium, aluminium, iron, chloride, carbonate, sulfate, and phosphate. The indicated method therefore seems to give a charcoal which is free from salt impurities which might interfere with its use in chemical work.
