Photocatalytic Reactive Ultrafiltration Membrane for Removal of

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Remediation and Control Technologies

Photocatalytic Reactive Ultrafiltration Membrane for Removal of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria and Antibiotic Resistance Genes from Wastewater Effluent Shaojie Ren, Chanhee Boo, Ning Guo, Shu-Guang Wang, Menachem Elimelech, and Yunkun Wang Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b01888 • Publication Date (Web): 09 Jul 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on July 10, 2018

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Photocatalytic Reactive Ultrafiltration Membrane for Removal of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria and Antibiotic Resistance Genes from Wastewater Effluent

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Environmental Science & Technology 10 11

Shaojie Ren,† Chanhee Boo,‡ Ning Guo,† Shuguang Wang,† and Menachem Elimelech,‡* Yunkun Wang,†‡*

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21



Shandong Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China ‡

Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8286, United States

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

‡*Corresponding

author: email: [email protected]; Tel: +1 (203) 432-2789

†‡*Corresponding

author: email: [email protected]; Tel: +86 (532) 58630960

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ABSTRACT 30

Biological wastewater treatment is not effective in removal of antibiotic resistant

31

bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). In this study, we fabricated a

32

photocatalytic reactive membrane by functionalizing polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)

33

ultrafiltration (UF) membrane with titanium oxide (TiO2) nanoparticles for the removal

34

of ARB and ARGs from a secondary wastewater effluent. The TiO 2-modified PVDF

35

membrane provided complete retention of ARB and effective photocatalytic

36

degradation of ARGs and integrons. Specifically, the total removal efficiency of ARGs

37

(i.e., plasmid-mediated floR, sul1, and sul2) with TiO2-modified PVDF membrane

38

reached ~98% after exposure to UV irradiation. Photocatalytic degradation of ARGs

39

located in the genome was found to be more efficient than those located in plasmid.

40

Excellent removal of integrons (i.e., intI1, intI2, and intI3) after UV treatment indicated

41

that the horizontal transfer potential of ARGs was effectively controlled by the TiO 2

42

photocatalytic reaction. We also evaluated the antifouling properties of the TiO 2-UF

43

membrane to demonstrate its potential application in wastewater treatment.

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TOC Art

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INTRODUCTION

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Widespread use of antibiotics results in the emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria

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(ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in diverse environmental matrices,

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including soil, drinking water resources, and wastewater effluents. Stringent control of

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ARB and ARGs release to the environment is of critical importance because these

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microbial contaminants can potentially have a large negative impact on the

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environment and human health.1,

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(WWTPs) are not designed to eliminate microbial contaminants resistant to antibiotics,

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but rather become the main source for proliferation of ARB and ARGs due to the high

63

concentration of activated sludge employed during biological wastewater treatment. 3,

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4

65

2

Currently, most wastewater treatment plants

Advanced oxidation processes such as chlorination, ozonation, and ultraviolet (UV)

66

disinfection have recently been employed to control antibiotic resistant bacteria and

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genes from wastewater effluents. However, the effectiveness of these advanced

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oxidation treatment technologies for inactivation of ARB and ARGs is still

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controversial.5 For instance, Zhang et al. have demonstrated inactivation of

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tetracycline-resistant bacteria (TRB) containing tetC and tetA genes by sodium

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hypochlorite,6 whereas Munir et al. reported conflicting results indicating that

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chlorination is not effective in inactivating these ARB and ARGs.7 In another study,

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residual chlorine has been shown to trigger the emergence of ARGs by acting like an

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antibiotic.8 Inactivation of ARB by ozone oxidation is possible, but the release of free

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ARGs from the bacteria cells decreases oxidation efficiency.5 UV treatment provides

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a promising solution for ARB removal by directly damaging the cell nuclei acid. 9

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However, employing high-intensity UV continuously during wastewater treatment

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remains a challenge.10-12 Moreover, the genes fragmented by oxidation can be

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integrated with other pathogens in the wastewater effluent, thereby requiring

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post-treatment.13, 14 Thus, there is a critical need to develop alternative approaches

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for inactivation of ARB and further degradation of ARGs from wastewater effluents.

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Membrane technology has the potential to provide an effective solution for 3

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removal of ARB and ARGs from wastewater effluents.15-17 However, fouling by

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attachment of microbes on the membrane surface significantly deteriorates

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membrane performance.18,

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promoted within the fouling layer (i.e., biofilm) due to high bacteria density. 20,

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Incorporating photocatalytic nanomaterials on the membrane surface can control

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biofouling during treatment of wastewater effluents contaminated by ARB and

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ARGs.22 Titanium dioxide (TiO2) provides a promising platform for the development of

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a photocatalytic reactive membrane, which enables inactivation of ARB and ARGs 23,

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24

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(ROS) under UV irradiation.25, 26

19

Furthermore, horizontal transfer of ARGs can be 21

and reduces fouling potential through the generation of reactive oxygen species

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The proliferation of ARGs is driven by vertical and horizontal gene transfers that

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are closely related to the types of bacteria host and mobilome, respectively. 27 It is well

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known that both genome and plasmid (i.e., mobile genetic element) in the bacteria

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cell contain ARGs and integrons.28, 29 The ARGs carried by the genome are relatively

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stable in terms of their heredity. Thus, proliferation of these ARGs is mainly driven by

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vertical gene transfer. In contrast, horizontal transfer of ARGs takes place through

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transformation, transduction, or plasmid conjugation more easily and frequently.

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Integrons are considered an indicator of the potential for horizontal gene transfer

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due to their ability to capture exogenous gene cassettes.30,

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transfer mechanism of integrons is site-specific.32 For example, integrons located in

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plasmids have more chances for inter-species transmission, resulting in an increased

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ability to integrate with other bacteria. Likewise, degradation of integrons is expected

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to be dependent on their location in the bacteria cell, but studies of relevant

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mechanisms are still scarce. Therefore, fundamental understanding of the removal

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mechanisms of ARGs and integrons is critical for the development of effective control

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strategies.

31

As with ARGs, the

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In this study, a photocatalytic reactive membrane was fabricated via a facile and

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scalable surface modification technique to remove antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB)

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and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) from secondary wastewater effluent. A 4

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polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) ultrafiltration membrane was functionalized with TiO 2

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nanoparticles to enable photocatalytic degradation of ARB and ARGs. Removal

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efficiency and degradation mechanisms of ARB and ARGs were investigated. We

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also demonstrated the antifouling performance of the TiO2 functionalized PVDF

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membrane by evaluating fouling reversibility with secondary wastewater effluent.

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Implications of the results for the use photocatalytic reactive membranes to remove

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antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes in wastewater effluent are evaluated and

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discussed.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

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Materials and Chemicals. PVDF ultrafiltration membrane (Sepro, Carlsbad, CA) with

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a molecular weight cut-off of 100 KDa was used as a substrate. Before use,

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membranes were immersed in ethanol for 30 min, followed by three 30-min periods of

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rinse with deionized (DI) water to remove residual ethanol. Titanium oxide

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nanoparticles (TiO2, P25) were acquired from Evonik Industries AG. Tris-HCl solution

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(1 M, pH 9) and dopamine hydrochloride were purchased from Sinopharm Chemical

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Reagent Co., Ltd. The secondary wastewater effluent samples were collected from a

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WWTP located in Jinan City, China (36°42'11"N,117°02'10"E).

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Functionalization of PVDF Membrane with TiO2. Pre-wetted PVDF membrane

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coupons were cut to fit a custom-made rectangular frame and held tightly by a soft

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rubber spacer using a clamp with the active surface layer facing up. A 10 mM Tris

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buffer was prepared by diluting the Tris-HCl solution (1 M, pH 9) in DI water and

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adjusting the pH to 8.5 using hydrochloric acid (HCl, 0.1 M). A freshly prepared 2

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mg/mL dopamine solution in 10 mM Tris buffer (pH 8.5) was carefully poured onto the

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membrane surface. After 6 h, the polydopamine (PDA)-deposited membrane was

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removed from the frame and thoroughly rinsed with DI water three times. TiO2 (P25,

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100 mg) was dispersed in 20 mL DI water, followed by 10 min sonication in ultrasonic

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bath. The PDA-coated membrane was in contact with the TiO2 nanoparticle

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suspension (5 mg/mL) for 24 h. All surface modification steps were performed on a

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rocking platform at 30 °C. A schematic description of the PVDF membrane

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modification with TiO2 nanoparticles and the subsequent use of this membrane for

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ARB/ARGs filtration followed by UV photodegradation is presented in Figure S1.

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Membrane Characterization. Membrane morphology was characterized by

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scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Hitachi SU8010, Japan). Before imaging,

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samples were coated with a platinum layer to enhance membrane conductance.

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Membrane surface roughness was evaluated by atomic force microscopy (AFM,

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Dimension Icon, Veeco Instruments Inc., USA) in tapping mode. Membrane samples

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were dried in a vacuum desiccator for 24 h at 50 °C before AFM measurements. The

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water contact angle of the membranes was measured by a goniometer (Shanghai

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Zhongchen Digital Technology Apparatus Co. Ltd) using the sessile drop method. A

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2-μL water droplet was placed on the surface of the pre-dried membrane and

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photographed using a digital camera. The measurements were conducted on a

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minimum of two random locations with three different membrane samples, and the

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data were averaged.

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Membrane porosity and water uptake were estimated gravimerically.33 A 1.5 cm 

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1.5 cm membrane sample was stored in DI water for 24 h and weighed carefully after

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removing excess water from the surface. Then, the sample was dried in a vacuum

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oven for 24 h and the weight was reevaluated. Porosity () and water uptake values

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were calculated using

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 (%)  

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 W  Wd Water uptake (%)   w  Wd

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where Ww and Wd are the weights of the wet and dry membrane samples,

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respectively, ρw is the density of water, S is the membrane area, and l is the

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membrane thickness determined using a micrometer.

 Ww  Wd  w Sl

 100 

(1)

 100 

(2)

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Filtration and UV Photocatalytic Degradation Experiment. The separation and

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antifouling performance of the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane were evaluated in a 6

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dead-end UF system with a cell volume of 10 mL and an effective membrane area of

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4.1 cm2 (Amicon stirred cell, Model 8010), which was connected to a dispensing

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reservoir with a nitrogen gas supply. The secondary wastewater effluent was

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pre-filtered through a filter paper (pore size of 80–120 μm) to remove large particulate

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and suspended matters. To determine the retention performance, 250 mL secondary

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effluent was filtrated through the membrane at a pressure of 1.4 bar (20 psi). Then,

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100 μL sterile DI water was carefully dispensed on the membrane surface to wet the

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fouling layer, followed by membrane exposure to UV254 for 1 h. The distance between

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the membrane surface and UV lamp (QiPaiWells Company, Shanghai) was

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maintained at 10 cm to obtain a consistent luminous intensity of 12 μW/cm 2.

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Fouling reversibility was evaluated to investigate the antifouling property of the

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TiO2-modified PVDF membrane. Before fouling experiments, a new membrane

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coupon was compacted for 3 h under a pressure of 1.4 bar using DI water as the feed.

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After compaction, the membrane was further stabilized for 20 min to obtain a constant

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permeate water flux. Fouling experiments were conducted for 1 h using wastewater

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effluent as the feed at a pressure of 1.4 bar. After gentle rinsing with DI water, the

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fouled membrane was exposed to UV for 1 h. Last, the pure water flux was

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re-evaluated at 1.4 bar and the water flux recovery was calculated by comparing the

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value to that obtained with the fresh membrane coupon.

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After filtration and UV treatment, bacteria with intact and compromised cell

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membrane on the fouled membrane surface were quantified using confocal laser

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scanning microscopy (CLSM, FV1000-IX81, Olympus, Japan). The samples were

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stained with a solution of SYTO 9 and propidium iodide (PI) for 15 min in the dark,

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according to the reagent manual (LIVE/DEAD® BacLight™ Bacterial Viability Kit,

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Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA). After each staining step, the membrane samples

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were rinsed with sterile phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.2).

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Confocal images at random locations on the membrane surface were captured

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using a CLSM equipped with 20 flat field half apochromatic objective lens

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(UPLSAPO20). SYTO 9 was excited with an argon laser at 488 nm while PI was 7

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excited using a diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) 561 nm laser. Emissions were

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observed at 528 nm for live bacteria (stained with SYTO 9) and 645 nm for dead

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bacteria (stained with PI). SYTO 9 and PI were excited separately using two

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independent scans. FV10-ASW and Image-Pro® Plus (version 6.0) software were

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used to analyze the confocal images.

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Plasmid and Genome DNA Extraction. For plasmid and genomic DNA

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extraction, each wastewater effluent sample (40 mL) collected before and after the

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UF experiments was centrifuged for 10 min at 10,000 rpm. Plasmid and genomic DNA

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were then extracted from the precipitates using the TIANpure Mini Plasmid Kit

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(TIANGEN) and TIANamp Bacteria DNA Kit (TIANGEN), respectively, following the

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instructions from the manufacturer.

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To extract plasmid and genomic DNA from the bacteria retained on the membrane

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surface, membrane coupons (4.1 cm2, before or after UV treatment) were immersed

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in 5 mL sterile PBS and ultrasonicated for 20 min. Next, 2 mL aliquots of the

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ultrasonicated solution were placed in sterile centrifuge tubes for extracting the

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genome and plasmid DNA. All DNA samples were stored at –20 °C before use. The

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residual 1 mL ultrasonicated solution was stored at 4 °C for bacteria count.

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Bacteria Count and qPCR Measurement. Bacteria abundance was determined

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by a plate count.34 Dilutions of the cell suspension were plated on Luria broth (LB,

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Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA) selective plates containing different antibiotics

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(chloramphenicol, tetracycline, and sulfadiazine) to select the bacteria resistant to the

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corresponding antibiotic. The concentrations of chloramphenicol, tetracycline, and

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sulfadiazine employed in the LB selective plates were 32, 16, and 512 mg/L,

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respectively.35 After incubation for 24 h at 37 °C, the ARB were quantified via a plate

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count.

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Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was performed to determine the abundances of various

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ARGs using a real-time PCR System (LightCycler®480, Roche, Applied Science,

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Switzerland). The primers used in this work were listed in Table S1. The DNA of target

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gene was purified by the Qiagen Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Germany) and ligated 8

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into a pMD 19-T vector (Takara, Japan) and cloned into E. coli DH5 competent cell

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(Takara, Japan). The transformed cells were grown in an LB selective medium

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containing 100 mg/L of ampicillin to determine the positive clones. A series of 10-fold

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dilutions of plasmid standards ranging from 109 to 104 copies L-1 were conducted to

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generate a standard curve.7 Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was conducted in a 96-well

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plate containing 2 μL plasmid or genomic DNA template, 10 μL of SYBR Premix Ex

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Taq (Takara, Japan), 0.4 μL of forward and reverse primers, and 7.2 μL of DNA-free

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water. All samples were run in triplicates in the qPCR reactions. Details on the qPCR

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measurements, including the sequences of ARGs and integrons, standard cures, and

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detection limits are presented in the Supporting Information (Table S2 and Table S3).

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Gene copy number was calculated from the corresponding standard curve. To clarify

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the removal mechanism, the Spearman correlation analysis between degradation

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efficiency of ARGs and integrons and a relative proportion of guanine and cytosine to

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the total nucleotides sequences (GC%) was performed using the Statistical Package

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for Social Science software (SPSS) based on a 5% significance level.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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Characteristics of TiO2-Modified PVDF Membrane. Surface morphology and

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structure of the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane were investigated by SEM. As shown

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in Figure 1a, the pristine PVDF membrane has pores with sizes in the range of 20–50

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nm in diameter. Surface morphology did not change much after a relatively long 6-h

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PDA coating as shown in Figure 1b. TiO2 nanoparticles were anchored to the

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PDA-coated PVDF membrane utilizing the catechol/quinone groups of PDA. Previous

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studies have reported that catechol/quinone groups enable homogeneous surface

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functionalization with TiO2 nanoparticles by preventing particle aggregation.36, 37 We

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also evaluated the amount of TiO2 incorporated in the PVDF membranes using

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thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Results from TGA indicate that TiO 2 accounts for

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1.5 wt % of the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane (Figure S2a). Images from SEM-EDS

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elemental mapping revealed evenly distributed TiO2 nanoparticles on the membrane

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surface (Figures S2b and S2c in the Supporting Information), consistent with SEM 9

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images of the surface of the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane (Figure 1c).

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Figure 1

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The average pore size of the PVDF membranes before and after surface

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modification

was

determined

by

the

Brunauer–Emmett–Teller

(BET)

and

258

Barrett–Joyner–Halenda (BJH) analyses using a gas sorptometer (SSA-4300, Builder,

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China) (Figure S3). We observed that surface modification with PDA and TiO 2

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reduced the average pore size of the PVDF membranes (pristine PVDF, 17 nm;

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PDA-coated PVDF, 15 nm; and TiO2-modified PVDF, 6 nm). AFM analysis indicates

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that coating of the PVDF membrane with PDA as well as with TiO2 nanoparticles had

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very little influence on the overall surface roughness (Figures 1d-f), although SEM

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images reveal a change in the overall surface morphology after TiO2 surface

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modification.

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Water contact angles for the pristine and surface modified PVDF membranes

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were measured to evaluate the surface hydrophilicity. As shown in Figure 1g, the

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water contact angle of the PVDF membrane decreased after PDA modification,

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indicating that –OH and –NH2 functional groups of PDA render the membrane surface

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hydrophilic.38 Surface hydrophilicity was further increased after functionalization with

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TiO2 as evidenced by a water contact angle of the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane

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lower than that of the PDA-coated membrane, likely due to the hydroxyl groups of the

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TiO2 clusters.39. In contrast to surface hydrophilicity, the TiO2-modified PVDF

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membrane exhibited the lowest water uptake. The observed lower water uptake of the

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TiO2-modified PVDF membrane compared to the pristine PVDF membrane is

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attributed to the reduction of membrane porosity (Figure 1h). Porosity translates to

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void volume within the membrane, which may impact water permeability and retention

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behaviors. The reduced pore size and more compact structure of the TiO2-modified

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PVDF membrane compared to the pristine membrane is beneficial to the removal of

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bacteria as discussed in the following subsection.

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Removal and Inactivation of Total and Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria. Both

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membrane filtration (Figure 2a, left panel) and UV treatment (Figure 2a, right panel) 10

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provided respectively near complete removal and inactivation of total bacteria,

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especially with the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane. The TiO2-modified PVDF

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membrane exhibited over 99.9% retention of total bacteria, higher than the pristine

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PVDF membrane (98.9%). The higher total bacteria removal efficiency of the

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TiO2-modified PVDF membrane compared to that of the pristine PVDF membrane

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was further confirmed by the reduced abundance of 16S rRNA in the permeate

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(Figure S4a). It is noteworthy that a small amount of bacteria passed through both the

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pristine and TiO2-modified PVDF membranes, although bacteria (size of 0.1 – 2 μm,

291

refer to inset of Figure 2b) are larger than the size of membrane pores (several

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tens-of-nanometer, Figures 1a and 1c and Figure S3). Previous studies have reported

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that bacteria permeation through microporous membranes depends on the structural

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properties of bacteria, including size and shape40,

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conditions.42 The incomplete removal of bacteria by the investigated UF membranes

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is likely because bacteria deformed under the hydraulic pressure (1.4 bar) pass

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through the membrane despite their much larger intrinsic size than membrane

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pores.41

41,

and hydrodynamic filtration

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Figure 2

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The TiO2-modified PVDF membrane exhibited much higher retention of

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tetracycline-resistant bacteria (TRB) and chloramphenicol-resistant bacteria (CRB)

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than the pristine PVDF membrane, while the retention of sulfadiazine-resistant

303

bacteria (SRB) displayed an opposite result. To explain the observed different ARB

304

retention behaviors, ARB from the wastewater sample were isolated and examined

305

by optical microscopy (insets of Figure 2b). Results indicate that TRB and CRB are

306

mostly coccus with a spherical or round shape and much smaller size compared to

307

SRB, which is a rod-shaped bacillus. Such structural properties of TRB and CRB

308

result in a lower retention by the pristine PVDF membrane compared to that by the

309

TiO2-modified PVDF membrane which has smaller pores than the pristine PVDF

310

membrane (Figure 1c). It can be inferred from this observation that TRB and CRB in

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wastewater effluent are more challenging to remove than SRB by the UF membrane. 11

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The TiO2-modified PVDF membrane showed significant improvement in

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inactivation of total bacteria after UV treatment compared with the pristine PVDF

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membrane (Figure 2a, right panel). Similarly, the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane

315

exhibited a higher photocatalytic degradation efficiency of ARB than the pristine

316

PVDF membrane (Figure 2b). To better evaluate the effect of TiO2 photocatalytic

317

reaction on bacteria inactivation, the live/dead bacteria retained on the membrane

318

surface were quantified via CLSM analysis. As Figure 3 shows, more dense

319

population of dead cells (shown red) was observed on the TiO2-modified PVDF

320

membrane (Figures 3c and 3d) compared to that on the pristine PVDF membrane

321

(Figures 3a and 3b) after UV treatment. We further verified the strong photocatalytic

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degradation efficiency of TiO2 by the reduced abundance of the 16S rRNA genes in

323

the permeate obtained from UF experiments with the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane

324

compared to that obtained with the pristine PVDF membrane (Figure S4b). It is

325

interesting to note that some bacteria are destroyed during filtration by the

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TiO2-modified PVDF membrane (compared the Figures 3a and 3c). In contrast,

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photocatalytic inactivation of bacteria retained on the pristine PVDF membrane was

328

incomplete after UV treatment (Figures 3b and 3d), suggesting that surface

329

functionalization with TiO2 is critical to achieve high inactivation rate of bacteria.

330

Figure 3

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Retention of Antibiotic Resistance Genes and Integrons. The abundance of

332

chloramphenicol resistance gene (floR), tetracycline resistance genes (tetC, tetW,

333

and tetQ), sulfonamides resistance genes (sul1 and sul2), and three integrons in the

334

feed (i.e., secondary wastewater effluent) and in the permeate measured after

335

filtration with the pristine and TiO2-modified PVDF membranes is presented in Figure

336

4. Compared with the pristine PVDF membrane, the TiO2-modified membrane

337

showed increased retention of most ARGs and integrons because the attached TiO 2

338

nanoparticles form a denser membrane structure. Notably, approximately several

339

tens to hundreds of copies of tetQ gene in plasmid were measured in the feed and

340

permeate obtained with both the pristine and TiO 2-modified PVDF membranes, while

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these genes were not detectable in the genome, indicating that tetQ gene transfer

342

was mainly carried through the plasmid (Figures 4a and 4c). This result also implies

343

that ARGs have distinctive locational distribution in the microorganisms which exist in

344

the effluent of wastewater treatment plants. All three integrons (intl1, intl2, and intl3)

345

were found in the secondary wastewater effluent. Specifically, IntI1 accounted for the

346

major portion (over 103 copies/mL in genome and plasmid), while intI2 was detected

347

at low very concentration (less than 5 copies/mL) in both genome and plasmid

348

(Figures 4b and 4d).

349

Figure 4

350

As shown in Figures S5a-5d, removal efficiencies of ARGs and integrons by the

351

pristine and TiO2-modified PVDF membranes differ substantially, depending on their

352

locations in the bacteria cell. Genome size is reported to be in the range of ~130 kbp

353

to ~14 Mbp, while plasmid has relatively small sizes ranging from ~1 to ~100 kbp. 43, 44

354

Thus, ARGs located in the genome were better retained by the pristine and

355

TiO2-modified PVDF membranes than those located in the plasmid (Figures 4a and

356

4c). The ARGs carried by the genome are more stable in terms of their heredity than

357

those carried by plasmid, and thus propagate mainly through vertical gene transfer.45

358

A relatively high removal efficiency of ARGs in the genome by both the pristine and

359

TiO2-modified PVDF membranes indicates that the potential of vertical ARG transfer

360

can effectively be controlled by membrane filtration. We also found that removal of

361

integrons in the genome was more efficient than those in plasmid by the pristine and

362

TiO2-modified PVDF membranes (Figures 4b and 4d).

363

Degradation of Retained Antibiotic Resistance Genes and Integrons. To

364

determine the photocatalytic degradation of ARGs and integrons retained by the

365

membrane, we exposed the membrane surface after filtration experiments to UV

366

irradiation for 1 h. As shown in Figure 5, ARGs and integrons located in the genome

367

had a higher photocatalytic degradation efficiency compared to those in plasmid. This

368

observation indicates that degradation of ARGs and integrons by UV photocatalysis

369

depends on their location in the bacteria cell. Compared with the relatively small size

370

plasmid, the larger genome can easily be attacked by reactive oxygen species (ROS) 13

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produced by TiO2 under UV irradiation. The TiO2-modified PVDF membrane showed

372

higher degradation efficiencies for most ARGs and integrons located in both the

373

genome and plasmid than the pristine PVDF membrane after UV treatment (Figures

374

5a-5d), in accordance with the previous results on total and antibiotic resistant

375

bacteria inactivation (shown earlier in Figure 2). The degradation efficiencies of floR,

376

tetC, sul1, and intI1 in the plasmid by the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane were

377

97.82%, 20.66%, 99.45%, and 93.67%, respectively, which are higher than those by

378

the pristine PVDF membrane (93.07%, 15.06%, 99.29%, and 88.86%, respectively)

379

after UV treatment. Although these improvements were not substantial (P-value of

380

0.016, 0.047, 0.016, and 0.305 for the floR, tetC, sul1, and intI1, respectively), the

381

results indicate that the degradation of ARGs and integrons was enhanced by the

382

photocatalytic activity of TiO2.

383

Figure 5

384

Photocatalytic degradation efficiency of tetracycline resistance genes (tetC, tetW,

385

and tetQ) was lower than that of sulfonamides resistance genes (sul1 and sul2)

386

located in both the plasmid and genome. The degradation efficiencies of tetC, tetW,

387

and tetQ in the plasmid were only 20.6%, 27.2%, and 2.0%, respectively, for the

388

TiO2-modified PVDF membrane after UV treatment, which is much lower than those

389

of sul1 (99.3%) and sul2 (98.8%). This finding is in good agreement with results from

390

previous studies showing that tetracycline resistance genes are more difficult to

391

degrade by UV disinfection than sulfonamides resistance genes (Figure 5c).46

392

Oxidants generated by an indirect photolysis pathway, such as reactive oxygen

393

species (ROS), preferentially react with guanine bases in DNA. 47,

394

strong correlation between the guanine-cytosine content (or GC%) and DNA

395

degradation efficiency of the investigated ARGs and integrons by UV treatment; this

396

finding indicates that ROS generated via TiO2 photocatalytic reaction was the major

397

contributor for degradation of ARGs and integrons located in both the genome and

398

plasmid (Table S4). The GC% of tetracycline resistance genes, especially tetQ (46%),

399

was lower than that of sulfonamides resistance genes (Table S2), which explains the

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We found a

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previously observed lower degradation efficiency of tetracycline resistance genes

401

located in both the genome and plasmid by UV irradiation.

402

Anti-fouling Performance of TiO2-Modified PVDF Membrane. To investigate

403

the antifouling performance of the TiO2-modified membrane, we conducted dead-end

404

UF experiments to evaluate water flux recovery after fouling. Rapid water flux decline

405

was observed for both the pristine and TiO2-modified PVDF membranes with a

406

secondary wastewater effluent feed solution (Figure 6). A substantial fouling layer is

407

likely to form on the membrane surface due to the high foulant loading in the

408

wastewater effluent, causing a sharp decrease of water flux. After the fouling

409

experiments, membranes were exposed to UV irradiation for 1 h to degrade ARB and

410

ARGs retained on the membrane surface. We observed a much higher flux recovery

411

for the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane compared to the pristine PVDF membrane

412

after UV treatment. Furthermore, long-term UF operation with several filtration cycles

413

indicated that the recovery of water flux for the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane

414

remained high and exceeded significantly that of the pristine PVDF membrane

415

(Figure S6).

416

Figure 6

417

The stability of the TiO2 surface coating during filtration was evaluated by

418

analyzing the titanium concentration in the permeate after UF experiments. Even after

419

48-h long term UF experiments, titanium concentration in the permeate was only ~0.3

420

ng/L (Figure S7 in the Supporting Information), substantially lower compared to the

421

amount of TiO2 deposited on the membrane. Hence, the amount of TiO2 leaching

422

from the membrane surface during filtration is negligible and will not compromise

423

membrane performance and permeate water quality.

424

The observed antifouling property of the TiO2-modified PVDF membrane is

425

attributed to the ROS produced by the TiO2 nanoparticles under UV irradiation, which

426

effectively inactivate the ARB and ARGs, thereby disrupting the fouling layer.

427

Previous studies have reported that the PDA intermediate layer could act as a

428

free-radical scavenger to prevent the substrate from damage by UV irradiation.49 15

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Thus, the PDA layer coated on the PVDF substrate also contributes to the almost

430

complete water flux recovery of the TiO2-modified membrane after UV treatment. The

431

observed membrane stability and antifouling performance of the TiO2-modified PVDF

432

membrane with UV treatment demonstrate the potential application of photocatalytic

433

reactive membranes in treatment of wastewater effluents contaminated by ARB and

434

ARGs.

435

ASSOCIATED CONTENT

436

The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publication

437

website at DOI:

438

Scheme

439

removal/degradation mechanisms of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic

440

resistance genes (ARGs) (Figure S1); Amount of TiO2 incorporated in the PVDF

441

membrane (Figure S2); Nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms and pore size

442

distribution of membranes (Figure S3); Abundance of 16S rRNA in the feed, permeate,

443

and from bacteria retained on the membrane (Figure S4); Removal efficiencies of

444

ARGs and integrons by UF (Figure S5); Antifouling performance in long-term UF

445

operation (Figure S6); Amount of TiO2 leaching during filtration (Figure S7);

446

Information on primers used for qPCR (Table S1); Annealing temperatures and

447

sequences of ARGs (Table S2); Standard curves and LOD95 of ARGs and integrons

448

(Table S3); Spearman’s correlation coefficients between degradation efficiency of

449

ARGs and integrons and a proportion of guanine and cytosine to the total nucleotides

450

sequences (GC%) (Table S4)

451

AUTHOR INFORMATION

452

Corresponding Author

453

‡*Phone:

+1 (203) 432-2789, e-mail: [email protected]

454

†*Phone:

+86 (532) 58630960, e-mail: [email protected]

455

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

456

We acknowledge the support received from the NSFC (51508309), China

illustrating

the

functionalization

of

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membrane

and

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Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2015M570596 and 2017T100496) and the

458

Research Award Fund for Outstanding Young Scientists of Shandong Province

459

(BS2015HZ013).

460

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REFERENCES

462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503

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antibiotic resistance genes in natural and man-made environments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, (10), 5721-5728. 29. Zhou, W. Q.; Yao, K. H.; Zhang, G.; Yang, Y. H.; Li, Y.; Lv, Y.; Feng, J., Mechanism for transfer of transposon Tn2010 carrying macrolide resistance genes in Streptococcus pneumoniae and its effects on genome evolution. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2014, 69, (6), 1470-1473. 30. Hu, H. W.; Wang, J. T.; Li, J.; Shi, X. Z.; Ma, Y. B.; Chen, D.; He, J. Z., Long-term nickel contamination increases the occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes in agricultural soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, (2), 790-800. 31. Gao, P.; Gu, C.; Wei, X.; Li, X.; Chen, H.; Jia, H.; Liu, Z.; Xue, G.; Ma, C., The role of zero valent iron on the fate of tetracycline resistance genes and class 1 integrons during thermophilic anaerobic co-digestion of waste sludge and kitchen waste. Water Res. 2017, 111, 92-99. 32. Mazel, D., Integrons: agents of bacterial evolution. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2006, 4, 608. 33. Demirel, E.; Zhang, B. P.; Papakyriakou, M.; Xia, S. M.; Chen, Y. S., Fe2O3 nanocomposite PVC membrane with enhanced properties and separation performance. J. Membr. Sci. 2017, 529, 170-184. 34. Pei, R.; Kim, S.-C.; Carlson, K. H.; Pruden, A., Effect of river landscape on the sediment concentrations of antibiotics and corresponding antibiotic resistance genes (ARG). Water Res. 2006, 40, (12), 2427-2435. 35. Guo, M. T.; Yuan, Q. B.; Yang, J., Microbial selectivity of UV treatment on antibiotic-resistant heterotrophic bacteria in secondary effluents of a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Water Res. 2013, 47, (16), 6388-6394. 36. Zhang, R. X.; Braeken, L.; Luis, P.; Wang, X. L.; Van der Bruggen, B., Novel binding procedure of TiO2 nanoparticles to thin film composite membranes via self-polymerized polydopamine. J. Membr. Sci. 2013, 437, 179-188. 37. Wu, H. Q.; Liu, Y. J.; Mao, L.; Jiang, C. H.; Ang, J. M.; Lu, X. H., Doping polysulfone ultrafiltration membrane with TiO2-PDA nanohybrid for simultaneous self-cleaning and self-protection. J. Membr. Sci. 2017, 532, 20-29. 38. Liu, Y. L.; Ai, K. L.; Lu, L. H., Polydopamine and its derivative materials: synthesis and promising applications in energy, environmental, and biomedical fields. Chem. Rev. 2014, 114, (9), 5057-5115. 39. Xu, Z. W.; Wu, T. F.; Shi, J.; Teng, K. Y.; Wang, W.; Ma, M. J.; Li, J.; Qian, X. M.; Li, C. Y.; Fan, J. T., Photocatalytic antifouling PVDF ultrafiltration membranes based on synergy of graphene oxide and TiO2 for water treatment. J. Membr. Sci. 2016, 520, 281-293. 40. Foley, G., A review of factors affecting filter cake properties in dead-end microfiltration of microbial suspensions. J. Membr. Sci. 2006, 274, (1-2), 38-46. 41. Lebleu, N.; Roques, C.; Aimar, P.; Causserand, C., Role of the cell-wall structure in the retention of bacteria by microfiltration membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 2009, 326, (1), 178-185. 42. Gaveau, A.; Coetsier, C.; Roques, C.; Bacchin, P.; Dague, E.; Causserand, C., Bacteria transfer by deformation through microfiltration membrane. J. Membr. Sci. 20

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2017, 523, 446-455. 43. Bennett, G. M.; Moran, N. A., Small, smaller, smallest: the origins and evolution of ancient dual symbioses in a phloem-feeding insect. Genome. Biol. Evol. 2013, 5, (9), 1675-1688. 44. Slater, F. R.; Bailey, M. J.; Tett, A. J.; Turner, S. L., Progress towards understanding the fate of plasmids in bacterial communities. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2008, 66, (1), 3-13. 45. Summers, D. K.; Sherratt, D. J., Multimerization of high copy number plasmids causes instability: ColE 1 encodes a determinant essential for plasmid monomerization and stability. Cell 1984, 36, (4), 1097-1103. 46. Auerbach, E. A.; Seyfried, E. E.; McMahon, K. D., Tetracycline resistance genes in activated sludge wastewater treatment plants. Water Res. 2007, 41, (5), 1143-51. 47. Qiao, Z.; Wigginton, K. R., Direct and indirect photochemical reactions in viral RNA measured with RT-qPCR and mass spectrometry. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, (24), 13371-13379. 48. Cadet, J.; Douki, T., Formation of UV-induced DNA damage contributing to skin cancer development. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 2018. 49. Feng, K.; Hou, L.; Tang, B. B.; Wu, P. Y., A self-protected self-cleaning ultrafiltration membrane by using polydopamine as a free-radical scavenger. J. Membr. Sci. 2015, 490, 120-128.

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100

16

80 60 40 20 0

614 615 616 617 618

Porosity Water uptake

PDA

25

15 8

10

4

5 0

Pristine

TiO2-PDA

30

20

12

0

Pristine

613

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Water uptake (%)

120

Porosity (%)

Water Contact Angle ()

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PDA

TiO2-PDA

Figure 1. SEM and AFM micrographs of pristine PVDF membranes (a and d), PDA-coated membranes (b and e), and TiO2-modified (c and f) membranes. (g) Water contact angle and (h) porosity and water uptake of the various membranes. Error bars represent standard deviations from three independent replicates.

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8

30

6

20

4

10

0

0.1 d e ed tin odifie s Fe i Pr -m 2 TiO

ARB (104 CFU/cm2)

30

621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630

0.2

Filtrate

2

(b)

620

Photocatalysis

Filtration

e V d V stin ine-U difie i r d-U o t P e i s if -m Pri od 2 -2 m TiO TiO

0

Total Bacteria (105 CFU/cm2)

Total Bacteria (103 CFU/mL)

(a)

Pristine Pristine-UV TiO2-modified

20 10

TiO2-modified-UV

0.2 0.1 0 SRB

TRB

CRB

Figure 2. (a, left) Total bacteria abundance in the feed and filtrate obtained from UF experiments. The secondary wastewater effluent was filtered by the pristine PVDF and TiO2-modified PVDF membranes until the permeate volume reached 250 mL, at a pressure of 1.4 bar (20 psi) and temperature of 25.0  0.5 °C. (a, right) Photocatalytic degradation of total bacteria on the surface of the pristine PVDF and TiO2-modified PVDF membranes before and after exposure to UV for 1 h. (b) CFU of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) on the surfaces of the pristine PVDF membrane and TiO2-modified PVDF membrane, respectively, before and after exposure to UV irradiation, measured via spread plate method. Microscopic images of ARB are shown in the inset with a 2-μm scale bar.

631

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632 633 634 635 636

Figure 3. CLSM images representing intact bacteria (green) and damaged bacteria (red) on (a) pristine PVDF, (b) pristine PVDF after UV treatment, (c) TiO2-modified PVDF, and (d) TiO2-modified PVDF membranes after UV treatment.

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Feed

Permeate - Pristine PVDF

4

10

(a) Genome

Integrons (copies/mL)

ARGs (copies/mL)

10

4

103 102 101 ND

0

10

ND

102 101 100

Integrons (copies/mL)

ARGs (copies/mL)

104

(c) Plasmid

103 102 101 0

10

ND

floR tetC tetW tetQ sul1 sul2

(b) Genome

103

floR tetC tetW tetQ sul1 sul2

104

Permeate - TiO2-modified PVDF

ND

intI1

intI2

intI3

intI2

intI3

(d) Plasmid

103 102 101 100

intI1

Figure 4. Retention of ARGs and integrons by the pristine PVDF and TiO2-modified PVDF membranes. The UF experiments were conducted at 1.4 bar (20 psi) until cumulative permeate volume reached 250 mL. The feed and permeate were collected and analyzed for abundance of ARGs and integrons that position in genome (a, b) and plasmid (c, d).

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10 10

5

10

Integrons (copies/cm2)

104 103 102 101

106

TiO2-modified before UV 6

(a) Genome

100

ARGs (copies/cm2)

Pristine after UV

floR tetC tetW tetQ sul1 sul2

105 104 103 102 101 100

(b) Genome

10

104 103 102 101 100 106

(c) Plasmid

floR tetC tetW tetQ sul1 sul2

TiO2-modified after UV

5

intI1

Integrons (copies/cm2)

ARGs (copies/cm2)

Pristine before UV 6

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intI2

intI3

intI2

intI3

(d) Plasmid

105 104 103 102 101 100

intI1

Figure 5. Photocatalytic degradation of ARGs and integrons on the surface of pristine PVDF and TiO2-modified PVDF membranes after UV treatment. ARGs and integrons in genome (a, b) and plasmid (c, d) were extracted using bacteria DNA kit and plasmid kit, respectively, and analyzed via quantitative PCR method.

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Normalized Water Flux (J/J0)

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1.2 PVDF

1.0

TiO2-PVDF

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

0

20

40

60

80

100

Time (min) Figure 6. Anti-fouling performance of the pristine PVDF and TiO 2-modified PVDF membranes evaluated using a dead-end UF set-up. Before fouling runs, membranes were compacted for 3 h at 1.4 bar (20 psi) until a steady flux was obtained. Fouling experiments were conducted for 60 min using pretreated (by a filter paper with a pore size of 80-120 μm) secondary effluent from a wastewater treatment plant as a feed at applied pressure of 1.4 bar (20 psi) and temperature of 25.0  0.5 °C. Initial water fluxes of the pristine PVDF and TiO2-modified PVDF membrane were 1,225 and 1,925 L m-2h-1, respectively. After fouling experiments, fouled membranes were exposed to UV irradiation for 1 h and pure water flux was re-evaluated at an applied pressure of 1.4 bar (20 psi).

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