Polymer Capacitor Dielectrics for High Temperature Applications

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Polymer Capacitor Dielectrics for High Temperature Applications Janet Ho, and Steven G. Greenbaum ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b07705 • Publication Date (Web): 06 Aug 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on August 7, 2018

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ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces

Polymer Capacitor Dielectrics for High Temperature Applications Janet S. Ho*,† and Steven G. Greenbaum ‡ †

‡

RDRL-SED-C, Army Research Laboratory, Adelphi, Maryland 20783, United States

Department of Physics & Astronomy, Hunter College of the City University of New York, New York, New York 10065, United States

* Corresponding Author: Email: [email protected]; Tel.: 301-394-0051 Keywords: metallized film capacitors; self-clearing; thermal conductivity; DC-link capacitors; BOPP; heat resistant polymers

Abstract:

Much effort has been invested for nearly five decades to identify and develop new polymer capacitor dielectrics for higher than ambient temperature applications. Simultaneous demands of processability, dielectric permittivity, thermal conductivity, and dielectric breakdown strength dictated by increasing high power performance criteria limit the number of available materials. The present review first explains the advantages of metallized polymer film capacitors over the film-foil, ceramic, and electrolytic counterparts, and then presents a comprehensive review on both past developmental effort of commercial resins and recent research progress on new 1

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polymers targeted for operating temperature above 150 °C. Some historical background and discussion on the limitation of the commercially-available polymer film dielectrics for high temperature applications are also given. In many cases, further development of promising polymers that appear to possess all or most of the important criteria is limited by lack of large scale market incentives, but could be of great value to niche applications in the military or aerospace realm.

1. INTRODUCTION Capacitors are major components in power electronic devices, some of which operate in hostile environments. For example, the sensors in “down hole” electronics for characterizing oil, gas, and geothermal wells can experience temperatures exceeding 200 °C, depending on the well depth. Another example can be found in the aircraft industry. As aircraft are becoming more electrified, new engine control systems require sensors/actuator and signal conditioning electronics to be located in or near aircraft engines where the operating temperature can be in range of 200-300 °C. Similar trends occur in the automobile industry with power electronics located in the engine compartment and near the wheels of hybrid and electric vehicles where the minimum temperature is 150 °C

1-5

. The introduction of wide bandgap semiconductors, e.g.,

silicon carbide, enables power electronics to operate at temperatures well above 150 °C

3, 6

;

however, unless capacitors are available that can operate in the same temperature range, such wide bandgap semiconductors cannot be employed efficiently. High temperature capacitors not only eliminate voltage derating but also ease thermal management as a result of the greater temperature difference between maximum device temperature and ambient.

Polymer film

capacitors are generally preferred over ceramics or electrolytic capacitors for high voltage (>500 V 7) applications because of greater volumetric efficiency and graceful failure (discussed below). 2


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With power system designers striving for miniaturization and reliability, presently-available polymer capacitor dielectrics are being pushed to their limits. While many heat-resistant polymers have been available commercially since early 1960s

8-10

,

many are not available in the form of capacitor dielectrics which must meet many requirements absent for other applications. Much effort has been invested over the years to identify or develop new high temperature polymers for capacitor dielectrics. The main challenge faced by capacitor film industry is that capacitor films, other than the commodity biaxially-oriented polypropylene (BOPP) and polyethylene terephthalate (BOPET) films of which one of the major markets is packaging 11-12, represent relatively small markets, primarily military, aerospace, and down-hole exploration

3, 6

, compared to that necessary for profitable commercial production of a polymer

resin. As a result, nearly all commercial capacitor films and, for that matter, dielectrics, are based on polymers synthesized for other applications. For example, in lists of the commercial applications of BO polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)

13

and polyethylene naphthalate (PEN)

14

, two

commercially available but expensive high temperature capacitor dielectrics, the application to capacitor film is the least mentioned. As a result, development of a new polymer for capacitor applications requires finding other, larger applications for the polymer which can justify commercial production. This situation constitutes a major impediment to the development of new capacitor dielectrics. Although many review articles on various aspects of polymeric capacitor dielectrics are available

15-21

, only one is dedicated to high temperature applications but with focus on

commercial resins. The present review complements previous reviews through its emphasis on both past developmental effort of commercial resins and recent research progress on new polymers targeted for operating temperature above 150 °C. The remainder of this review is

3



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organized into six sections. Section 2 explains the advantages of polymer film capacitors over the ceramic and electrolytic counterparts. Section 3 discusses key aspects of polymer capacitor dielectrics for high temperature applications. Section 4 provides an overview of the present polymer capacitor dielectrics and highlights their shortcomings for high temperature applications. Section 5 summarizes past effort to identify potential candidates from existing heat-resistant polymers for >200 °C capacitor applications. Section 6 reviews research progress on new materials during the past ten years, and Section 7 provides the outlook and concluding remarks. Table 1 lists the polymers discussed in the present review and their corresponding sections.

4


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Table 1. Polymers and their corresponding section numbers reviewed in this article.

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2. WHY POLYMER FILM CAPACITORS 2.1. Safety When selecting among ceramic, electrolytic, and polymer film capacitors (with metal foil or thin metallization as electrodes) for a given application, many factors need to be considered, of which safety is usually foremost. A capacitor with high energy (>10 kJ) is a potential bomb which requires that it be implemented in a technology with “graceful failure”. Presently, the only such technology is based on polymer film capacitors with thin metallization as electrodes, for which the thin layer of vacuum-deposited metallization (usually 20 to 100 nm of aluminum, zinc, or alloy 22) functions as a fuse in that when a localized breakdown of the film occurs during operation, (i) the current flowing through the breakdown site is limited by the metallization resistivity, and (ii) the energy dissipated in the breakdown is sufficient to vaporize/oxidize the metallization in the vicinity of the breakdown which isolates the breakdown site. This results in a small decrease in capacitance but continued operation of the capacitor at full rated voltage. Figure 1 shows a photograph of a breakdown (“clearing”) site in a metallized polymer film. In contrast, polymer film capacitors with metal-foil electrodes (5 to 10 µm thick

23

) and ceramic

capacitors, for which the electrode is a thick metal coating, lead to catastrophic failure when shorted 24-25. The graceful failure mechanism is known as “self-clearing” which was patented by Mansbridge

26

in the early 1900s, although Mansbridge proposed the use of a metal-polymer

composite electrode which was not reliable 27.

6


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Figure 1. Photograph of a breakdown site in a metallized polymer film. Figure reproduced from [29] Fig. 3 with permission from IEEE. By WWII, Bosch developed vacuum deposition of electrodes on lacquer-coated paper dielectric 28. This metallization process forms the basis of metallized film capacitor technology that is employed to date. The trade-offs for metallized film capacitors, however, include higher equivalent series resistance (ESR), lower ripple current handling capability, and lower thermal conductivity (discussed below) relative to the metal-foil electrode configuration. Capacitor design engineers must balance capacitor ESR with clearing energy, which scales inversely with the metallization resistance, and it must be limited to avoid damaging adjacent layers of dielectric during clearing (Figure 2) since a metallized film capacitor is typically wound from two layers of single-side-metallized dielectric film as illustrated in Figure 3

29

. The optimum

balance between ESR and clearing energy depends on the application.

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Figure 2. Photograph of an unwound metallized film capacitor having a poor self-clearing behavior with damage involving adjacent turns.

Figure 3. Schematic of the construction of a metallized polymer film capacitor winding without the end connections. Figure reproduced from [29] Fig. 5 with permission from IEEE. 2.2. Volumetric Efficiency For small capacitors with limited stored energy, capacitor selection may be based on volumetric efficiency which is measured in terms of either energy or capacitance per unit

8


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volume, although specific requirements of an application also need to be addressed, and as a result, capacitor selection is often a complex compromise between many parameters. In general, polymer film capacitors provide poor volumetric efficiency below 100 V because of the high breakdown field with limited minimum film thickness, but can be optimized in the voltage range from 300 V to 5 kV depending on the polymer. For example, the breakdown field of BOPET and BOPPS is around 500 MV/m while that for BOPP is >700 MV/m

30

. In fact it is this high

breakdown field that has made BOPP a leading candidate for electromagnetic rail gun capacitor development 31-33. However, the minimum film thickness varies with the polymer, being limited to >0.5 µm for BOPET 34, 1.6 µm for BOPP 35, and >5 µm for both BOPPS and BOPEN 35. The thin thickness of BOPET makes it the most efficient material for making relatively low voltage metalized film capacitors, although it is a relatively lossy dielectric and is limited to a maximum operating temperature of 125 oC (discussed below). For low voltage applications ( BTDA (296 °C) > BPDA (285 °C) > OPDA (275 °C), while the PI containing BAPBP diamine and BPDA dianhydride showed a Tg of 291 °C. The dielectric constants for the BPBPA-based PIs ranged from ~5.5 for the PMDA-based PI to ~6.9 for the BTDA-based at room temperature and frequencies from 1 kHz to 100 kHz, following the decreasing order BTDA > BPDA > OPDA > PMDA. At 220 °C, the dielectric constants decreased about 4% with the same decreasing trend with respect to the dianhydrides over the same frequency range (Figure 39). The DF for all the BPBPA-based PIs was below 4% at both room temperature and 220 °C from 100 Hz to 100 kHz (Figure 40). For the BAPBP/BPDA PI, the dielectric response at room temperature was similar to that of the BPBPA analog.

Figure 38. Chemical structures of a) 5,5′-bis(4-aminophenoxy)-2,2′-bipyridine (BPBPA) and b) 5,5’-bis(4-aminophenoxy)-2,2’-bipyrimidine (BAPBP), and c) various dianhydrides. Structures 61



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taken from [139] Scheme 2 for (a) and [138] Fig. 1 for (b) with permission from Elsevier and Wiley Periodical, Inc.

Figure 39. Dielectric constant as a function of frequency for the BPBPA-based PIs with various dianhydrides at room temperature (a) and 220 °C (b). Figure reproduced from [139] Fig. 2 for (a) and Support Information for (b) with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 40. Dissipation factor as a function of frequency for the BPBPA-based PIs with various dianhydrides at room temperature (a) and 220 °C (b). Figure reproduced from [139] Fig. 2 for (a) and Support Information for (b) with permission from Elsevier.

62


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6.4. Rigid Polymers with Heterocyclic Rings The demand for even higher operating temperature (~350 °C) for avionics prompted researchers to develop new polymers with high degree of aromaticity and heterocyclic rings in the polymer backbone with Tg higher than that of FPE (Tg=335 °C) or the aromatic PIs discussed so far. In the work by Venkat et al.

140

, three polymers were synthesized (Figure 41): (1) a

homopolymer (FDAPE) consisting of the FPE group and a diamond-like hydrocarbon (i.e., 4,9diamantyl) moiety as the repeating unit, (2) a random copolymer of fluorinated polybenzoxazole (PBO) with 1:1 ratio of a hydroxyphenyl-6F-PBO and a 12F-PBO unit, and (3) a fluorinated polyimide

(PI-ADE)

based

on

6FDA

and

a

diamine

of

2,2-bis(4-aminophenyl)

hexafluoropropane grafted with adamantane ester pendant groups. The Tgs of the three new polymers are 450 °C, 375 °C, and 305 °C for FDAPE, the PBO copolymer, and PI-ADE, respectively.

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Figure 41. Repeating unit of a) fluorenyl polyester with an incorporated 4,9-diamantyl group (FDAPE), b) fluorinated polybenzoxazole (PBO) with 50-50 mole ratio of hydroxyphenyl-6FPBO and 12F-PBO, and c) fluorinated polyimide grafted with adamantane ester pendant groups (PI-ADE). Chemical structures adapted from [140]. In addition to having the highest Tg, FDAPE also displayed the lowest DF of 0.3-0.4% and a stable capacitance at 10 kHz from 25-350 °C (Figure 42). The dielectric constant of FDAPE is ~3.5 at 10 kHz at 25 °C. In comparison, the PBO copolymer, which has a dielectric constant ~3 at 25 °C at 10 kHz, exhibited the highest DF of 1.4% at 25 °C to 1.8% at 250 °C at 10 kHz and a 2% increase in capacitance at 250 °C. The polyimide PI-ADE has a dielectric constant of 2.85 to

64


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2.91 for the temperature range of 25-250 °C at 10 kHz while the DF increased from 0.6% at 25 °C to 0.8% at 250 °C.

Figure 42. (a, c, and e) Dissipation factor and (b, d, and f) capacitance as a function of temperature at 10 kHz for FDAPE, the PBO copolymer, and PI-ADE. Data adapted from [140] Fig. 4, 6, and 7.

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6.5. Polycarbonates As discussed in Section 4.2, the presently available polycarbonate (PC) capacitor film, which is made from bisphenol A (BPA) containing two aromatic rings in the repeating unit (Figure 43a), is limited to a maximum operating temperature of 125 °C, above which the dielectric constant (~2.94) and DF (< 0.1% at 1 kHz) increased as the temperature passed through the Tg at 150 °C. In view of the reasonably low DF and stable capacitance possessed by the BPA-PC, Fontanella et al.

141

synthesized two new polycarbonates with higher Tg based on the BPA

chemistry with monomers containing additional aromatic rings in the backbone to increase rigidity. One of the two new PCs (TriBPA-PC in Figure 43b) contained three aromatic rings in the repeating unit and showed a Tg of 190 °C, while the other is a copolymer of 50-50 mole% of tetra-aryl PC and BPA-PC, denoted as TABPA-BPA-PC in Figure 43c with a Tg of 187 °C. The two new PCs exhibited similar dielectric constants and slightly lower dielectric loss with the relaxation peak occurring at higher temperature than the commercial BPA-PC as a result of the higher Tgs (Figure 44).

66


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Figure 43. Repeating units of various polycarbonates: (a) bisphenol A-polycarbonate (BPAPC), (b) triaryl polycarbonate (TriBPA-PC), (c) 50-50 mole fraction random copolymer of tetraaryl polycarbonate with BPA-PC (TABPA-BPA-PC), (d) fluorine-substituted tetraaryl polycarbonate (Di-F-p-TABPA-PC), and (e) cyano-substituted polycarbonate (CN-PC). Structures taken from [141-143] with permission from Wiley Periodical, Inc., Elsevier Ltd, and American Chemical Society.

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Figure 44. Dielectric loss (ε”) as a function of temperature at 10 kHz for the commercial BPAPC, TriBPA-PC, and TABPA-PC. Figure reproduced from [141] Fig. 4 with permission from Wiley Periodical, Inc. In addition to TriBPA-PC and TABPA-BPA-PC, the research group developed two other new PCs with higher dielectric constant based on functionalizing the polymer backbone with polar groups, as in the cases of the fluorinated tetra-aryl PC (Figure 43d) and the nitrile analogue of BPA-PC (Figure 43e) 142-143. Fluorination of the tetra-aryl PC resulted in not only an increase in dielectric constant (3.3 at 23 °C and 1 kHz) but also in dielectric loss at 10 kHz, with a relaxation peak of 0.1 occurring at ~25 °C and of 0.19 at ~250 °C, both of which were 50 °C higher than the corresponding peaks in BPA-PC (Figure 45). However, at temperature between 150 °C and 200 °C, the fluorinated PC displayed significantly lower loss than BPA-PC. The reported Tg for

68


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the fluorinated PC was 226 °C which suggested that the relaxation peak at 250 °C was associated to the glass transition.

Figure 45. Dielectric loss (ε”) as a function of temperature at 10 kHz for the commercial BPAPC and Di-F p-TABPA-PC. Figure reproduced from [142] Fig. 2 with permission from Elsevier Ltd. Incorporation of a -CN group into the BPA unit resulted in a significant increase in dielectric constant (~4 at 1 kHz from 25-125 °C) but also strong temperature dependence as shown in Figure 46. The dielectric relaxation peak associated with the glass transition, which is 19 °C higher than that of BPA-PC, also tripled in magnitude when compared to that of BPA-PC shown in Figure 45. The investigators attributed the sharp rise in dielectric loss at temperature above 180 °C to ionic conduction from impurities.

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Figure 46. (a) Dielectric constant of CN-PC and the commercial BPA-PC as a function of temperature at 1 kHz. (b) Dielectric constant and dielectric loss (ε”) of CN-PC as a function of temperature at 10 kHz. α, β and γ refer to the various dielectric relaxations. Figure reproduced from [143] Fig. 6 for (a) and Fig. 5 for (b) with permission from American Chemical Society. 6.6. Aromatic Polyureas The family of aromatic polyureas, many of which exhibit both pyro- and piezo-electric effects 144-146

, has attracted attention because of the high dipole moment of the urea functional group

(~4.9 Debye). In particular, the polyurea prepared from vapor deposition polymerization of a diamine monomer of 4,4’-diaminodiphenylmethane (MDA) and a diisocyanate monomer of 4,4’diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI) (Figure 47a) showed a stable dielectric constant of ~4.2 with a DF ~4% at 1 kHz which decreased to 500 V) and high energy (>10 kJ) applications, metallized polymer film capacitors are more volumetric efficient and safer than the film-foil and ceramic counterparts. Because of the simultaneous demands of processability, dielectric permittivity, thermal conductivity, and dielectric breakdown strength dictated by increasing high power performance criteria, the number of available materials are limited. Based on the data available in the literature, a few of the promising polymers that appear to possess most the important criteria is summarized in Table 3. Some comparable commercial polymers are included as comparison. In many cases, further development of thin-film devices based on these materials has been hampered by lack of large scale market incentives for niche or exclusively military applications.

76


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Table 3. Dielectric and thermal properties of various polymers.

Acknowledgments: The authors thank Dr. Steven Boggs (Nonlinear Systems, Inc.), Mr. Joe Bond (Electronic Concept Inc.), Mr. Chip Yang (CSI Capacitors) and Dr. Shihai Zhang (PolyK Technologies, LLC) for their useful discussion, and Ms. Judith Alvarado (University of California at San Diego) and Mr. Nico Eidson (University of Maryland) for literature collection. S.G. acknowledges the U.S. Office of Naval Research for grant support while preparing this article. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References

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