W.F. UHL CH118. T. MAIN, INC.. BOSTON. MASS.
Industrial plants an dependent upon watex and thermal power at present : other wurw. of power an M yet of no si-t importanm. Avd.&lity of power has b p t up with the demand. Production conrdas of about 25% w a k and 15% thermal power, and will remain in about the nme d a t i o n for wme time. Power -ources planned and u& construction d l add about aO% to the New England capacity during the next 3 years. The chemical industry in the largest usar of power in New England and in tlu United States. Four of the ten leading states in w a k powor developed p.r m a r e mile of drainage area
an in New England. Except for a faw indwtries. the cwt of power avezages 1- than 2% of tha total d u e of manuf a c t d products in New England industriw. for m a n y i n d d w the quality and reliability of the power supply an more important than a small incmment of cost. New England should not rely upon power from the St. L a m e Rivor and P-aqucddy Bay M a potential wume of low-cost power. M a n y years would dam before either could be completed and the power a d l e from t h e u wurw. in relatively m a l l compared with the growth in demand.
0
Beginning with 1942 the chemical industry became the largeat user of power in the United States,oveztaking the iron and steel industry which still is the second largeat uwr. In New England ala0 the chemical industry is the lar& user of power, if we include pulp and paper, the textile industry is the second, and the iron and steel industry is the thud. The chemical industry usea about 30% and the textile industry about 20% of the power produced in New England. The amount of power required per unit of product in the chemical industry is often m t e r than for other industries and the coat of power becomes relatively important in such caaea. However, the load factor for chemical industries is generally high and this haa a tendency to d e c r e e the cost differential and the d i d v a n tage of hipher cost of power in a competitive business. New England is generally competitive with the south Atlantic and e& and west south mntral states extending to Texas.
U R major industrial power resources at the present time are
the falling water in our streams and the supply of fuel of varioua kinds. Thus we have water power and thermal power. Other power mu1ce8,88 yet economically qupstionable, may matmidim from the energy in the tidal flows and from nuclear h i o n . For industrial purposea other power resources, such 88 the rap of the sun, and wind, animal, and man power, are insigni6cant and therefore outside the scope of our present interest. New England is comparatively well endowed with water power m u m but haa no aigni6cant supply of fuel mources for thermal power. In 1961 New England produced 5.7 billion kw.-hr. of water power, and 15.4 billion kw.-hr. of thermal power, a total of 21.1 billion h.-hr. (4). Twenty-seven per cent of this total waa water power. The th@ power wa8 produced principally by steam power, although a small amount was produced by gas turbin= and internal combustion enginea (Figure 1). The installed generating capacity amounted to about 5,500,000 kw., composed of l,zoO,OO0 kw. of water and 4,300,000 kw. of thermal capacity (Figure 2). In 11 years, from 1941, power production inomwed 103% and capacity increased ahout 67%.
POWER DEMAND AND AVAILABILITY The demand for power has steadily increased, with some variations from year to year due to wars and mora recently to the defense program. For New England the demand hea increaaed from about 1250 kw.-hr. per capita in 1941 to B80 kw.-hr. per capita in 1951, an increase of 82%. For the country an a whole, the demand has increased from about 1500 to 2800 kw.-hr. per capita during the same 11-year period, an inorease of 86.6%. Availability haa kept pace with the demand, although there have been periodn when the margin between demand and availabilitv was somewhat reduced. h e c w e of shortane of material and equipment. Ganeratina CaDacity for the New England area in 1951 amounted a h i t 5,500,000 kw. hie is in increaae of about 900,OOO kw. in capacity over a 4 y e m period, or about 19%. To cape with the expected increase in demand in New England o w the next few years, commitments for new power capacity hy the end of 1953 (5')amount to about 650,000kw. of thermal power snd aO,OO0 kw. of water power. Additional water power capacity now planned or already under construction in New England, which should he ready for operation sometime in 1954, amounts to about m O ,O 0kw. On order is an additional 220,000 kw. of thermal capacity, which is now planned to start operation in 1954.
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t i
COST O f FVRCWISED POWER A comparison has been made of the cost of purehaaed power b e d on published rates (6)in these areaa for a power demand of 4wx) kw. with an average load of 4250 kw. for 8ooo hours annually. It is aasumed that this amount of power would be p u r chased in addition to any by-product thermal power that might he generated by the industry. ArNew England Booth Atlantio
E.at south mnkd
Walt wuth Wantrd
&&
Fata. Dollar per Kw.-Hr. Conaidered Minimum A-we Maximum 8 0.00740 O.Oo806 0.01069 8 0.00828 0.00711 o.ooa32 6 0.wg.s~ 0 . 0 ~ 1 4 o.wm 5
0.00488
0.00848
0.00716
The coet of power for most chemical industries varieS from about 3.5 to 10% of the manufacturing coat. Using the minimum ratea for each area, the annual difference in power cost between New England and the other lvess under consideration (34,000,000kw.-hr. annually) amounts to the following: Minimum Annual Power
cat
Dinemnw bt-n N.E. .nd Other A n s a
If the power cost is 3.5% of the total manufacturing cost ( h a d on New England coet), the total annual manufacturing cost is about S7,180,000 and the annual difference in the manufacturing coet due to the power cost diBemtial is:
Novemlmr 1952
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
0.56% lesa for the aouth Atlantic m a 0.40% lea for the east aouth central ama 1.14% lesa for the nest aouth central MB
If the power cost is 5% of the total manufacturing cost, the power cost differential in 0.80, 0.58, and I.&%, resp+ctively. If the mer cost is 10% of the total manufacturing cost, the power cost diEerantial is 1.59, 1.15, and 3.28%, respectively. Similar estimates can readily be made for the average and maximum rates given. The diEerence between the west south central area and the south Atlantic and east south central arenq is as great as that betnerm New England and the latter two arenq. WATER
POWER AND THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
The end of the nin-th century ushered in the beginning of the electric age,which resulted in significant changee in the art of generating and transmitting power and in the use made of power. The davelopment of h y d r ~ l e d r i cpower at Niagara Falls in 1985 marked the beginning of the electric furnace art and the dip cowry and development of many materials that are now eaaential basic materiala in American industry. Aluminum, calcium carbide,ahrasiven, fermalloys,silicon, graphite, and many other now a)llll~11 taings were only laboratory curimities prior t o the d e velopment and use of N w a power.
2539
.~
kw. was water power. Information now available indicates that over the next few years the ratio of water to thermal power in New England will remain about the same. Present plans call for about N WOUND n0,oOO kw. of water and l,MX),oOO kw. of thermal power to come into 3 operation during 1951 to 1954, inclusive. After this oeriod the proportionate amount of water power will gradually become less. Except for locations in Maine, no important undeveloped water power sites will remain available in New England. The smaller water power sites will not be economically feasible until their output can be coordinated with thermal power plants. It is iutemting to note the relative water power development per square mile of drainage area in the ten states in which water power is most highly developed (Table I). Four of the ten leading states are in New England. The New York-New England Interagency Committee is making a general survey of this area which will include a survey of potential water power resourca. Thin information will undoubtedly be informative and of general intemt.
1,!2&,oOO
FUELGENERATEDWWER
As New England is an area devoid of fuel resouwen and delivered fuel costs are relatively high because of the distance from the coal mining areas and t6e oil fields, particular attention has always been given to developments in s t e m power generation which would result in fuel economies. In the industrial power field, significant economies are realized by the uee of exhaust steam or steam extracted from power units for procass purposes in industries having substantial p r o m heat requirements, such as textile and paper mills.
Table I. Public Utility and Industrial H y k l e c t r i c Capacity
Figum 1. Production of E*ctr* E n a g y in New England. 1941 t o 1951 The Niagam Falls Power Ca. began generating alternating ourrent on a commercial basis in the summer of 1805, and its 6mt &mer was the Pittsburgh Reduction Ca.,manuSacturing aluminum. Next came the CarboNndum Co., and these were ahortly followed hy many others m a k i ferroalloys, sadium, silicon, magnmium, potaesium, phosphom compounds, graphite, and many other now indispensable pmducte and using power for the h t i o u of atmospheric nitrogen. For about 25 yeara following the Nisgars development, the aluminum and some other chemical indwtries built their plants w k r e 1aae-sc.de low-cost water power was available. Only a few such locations were available in New England and these were and are still used for pulp and paper pruductiou. WATER
POWER IN NEW ENGLAND
Because water power was a prime factor in the original develop
memt ofinduskid communitiesin New England, it is natural that many people sbould magnify its importance in their view of the edsting nitustion. However, of the total power capacity of
1 2
NawHsmphim Maaarrah-tta
4 5 6
Mmhnd Tennwee New York South Ouoliru Conmtiout varmont Ala-
a
7
8 9
10
wdi~ton
9.304
8,257 68.192
10,557 42.248 49.570 31.056 5.w9 9,m 51.608
812.m
2aa m 1,w:ioa 272 197 1 ma'a75 1:2aa:eM 676 OB7 1oB:wo 102.m 999.988
33.5
a8.2
27.9 25.7
ar.4 24.9 21.8 21.1 20.0
19.4
In the 6eld of stem-electric power, the economical transmiasion of power over long distances has made it possible to locate steam plants at tide water, to take advantage of ample supplies of condensing water and the savings in c& of water-borne fuel. In mme cases, however, the advantage of close proximity to load centern still outweigk thme factors. From 65 to 75% of all electric power p r o d u d in New England at the present time is from thermal power plants. In the United States from 80 to 65% of all electric power produced is from tbermal plants. This predominance of thermal generated electric power will be more evident in the future hscauee the amount of
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
2540
feasible undeveloped water power is small compared to the growth in the demand for electric power. In 1920 slightly over 40% of all electric power generated in the United States was produced from water power, compared to slightly under 30% in 1950. This decrease in the relative amount of water power production is in great measure due to the increased economy of thermal power production. About 1900 it required from 4 to 5 pounds of coal to generate the amount of electric power that is now generated by less than 1 pound of coal.
COST OF POWER FOR INDUSTRIAL PLANTS In most industries the cost of power is a small percentage of the total cost of manufacturing in comparison to wages, material, and other costs. Except for a few industries, the cost of pover averages less than 2% of the total value of manufactured products in New England industries. However, for some chemical industries, where the amount of power consumed per unit of production is large, the cost of power has an important bearing on the competitive position of the industry.
9 !0 A
0
3
P
5 2
1
1941
42
Figure 2.
43
44
1945
46
47
40
49
1950
51
Installed Capacity of Generating Plants i n New England, 1941 to 1951 *
Vol. 44, No. 11
the development of water power must often wait until a much larger capacity of thermal power is first provided. The extent to which a power system is designed to ensure continuity of service and close regulation of frequency and voltage is reflected in the cost of power. For many industries the quality and reliability of the power supply are immeasurably more important than a small increment of cost.
ST. LAWRENCE RIVER POWER If the St. Lawrence River (Barnhart Island) power project could be divorced from politics and navigation, it should certainly be developed as soon as possible, for it is a valuable natural resource going to waste that could be used to advantage in both Canada and New York. Canada is particularly anxious to have this power developed. The central part of that country has no fuel resources, but finds it now necessary to build large thermal power plants to supplement its extensive water power system. Demand for more polver is increasing in Canada as it is in this country. The United States portion of the St. Lawrence power project is estimated to provide about 6 billion kw.-hr. in an average water year, and about 5 billion kw.-hr. in a low water year from an installed capacity of 900,000 km. The minimum dependable capacity on a continuous basis in a low n-ater year is about 500,000 kw. ( 2 ) . As it would take from 5 to 7 years to develop the St. Lawrence project, it would take care of no more than one year’s increased demand in New Yorlr by the time it could be completed. To the cost of generation must be added the cost of transmission, which \+-auld become an important factor if some of this power were delivered a t distant points, such as New England. Transmission of power over such long distances is not warranted unless large blocks of power are involved. New England should not rely upon the St. Lawrence as a potential source of low-cost power. Perhaps the greatest good that could come from this St. Lawrence development would be from using the paver for chemical industries near the site, rather than transmitting i t to distant points where its cost would probably be no less than that of competitive fuel-generated poiver. This St. Lawrence power will be high-load-factor power particularly suitable for chemical and other high-load-factor industries. PASSAMAQUODDY
The remaining undeveloped water power in New England cannot compete with power produced by natural gas fuel near its source, or with the subsidized water powers on the large rivers in the West. This would be true even if the development of the remaining New England water powers were subsidized by federal grants. Most chemical industries require a continuous supply of power 24 hours per day throughout the year. The dependable capacity of water power is determined by the amount of power developed by the minimum available stream flow. The minimum monthly average natural stream flow of rivers in New England, unregulated by storage reservoirs, varies from 4 t o 12% of the average flow. Some of the larger rivers have storage of varying amounts which serve to increase this minimum natural flow up to as much as 50% of the average in some cases. As a consequence, all water powers in New England must be operated in conjunction with thermal power to make them dependable throughout the year. Generally such water power is used for short hours on the peak of the load and can thus reduce the amount of thermal power capacity required. Within certain limits, this results in the lowest cost of power. The over-all cost of a combination of water and thermal power may well be greater than the cost of thermal power alone. It is for this reason that
In Maine and TTashington, D. C., the Passamaquoddy project is still being discussed. No doubt, power can be generated from the tides there, if anyone mill pay the cost. In 1935, U. S. Army Engineers estimated the cost of construction of the smaller “American Project” at about $1090 per kw. to build. In 1940, the Federal Power Commission estimated the cost of steam power at about $100 per kw. While full information regarding the international project iu not available, there is no evidence that the international scheme mould produce power a t appreciably lower cost than the American scheme. Until a complete engineering study establishing the economic soundness of the Paesamaquoddy project is made, it is unlikely that funds will be found for its construction. It would be diEcult to justify charging a part of the cost of this project toflood control and navigation, as has been done in connection with some other projects. This is, therefore, not a source of low-cost power for New England, unless the cost of development is highly subsidized. The amount of power that could reasonably be developed by the international project is about 500,000 kw., comparable to the minimum yearly capacity of the United States portion of the St. Lawrence Barnhart Island project. Considering the present
Nm&r
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
1952
rate in growth of demand, tbin would have only a shortterm e.Eect on the nor& increasa of power capacity in New England. “A, which started out as a water power project, now has 3,144,OW kw. of ateam plant ospacity either in service or planned to be in operation by 1954. By that time ita installed water power capacity in planned to amount to 2,656,900 kw.,or nearly s00,oaO kw. lees tban ita steam power capacity.
ATOMIC POWER The following item appeared in the NEW Ywk Timed. A Nobel Prize winner ip ch-13’ predicted yesterday, 88 he took 05for Sweden to m v e lua award that It would take a t leaat twenty years Wore atomic power could be developed to compete with wal and watm in suppl the United States with electricity and industrial o m . P G l e n n T.Seaborg, co-winner of the prise in 1951for &a discovery of plutonium, declared that a t least ten years would elapse before any substantial amount of atomic power would he generated. However, he said, there were m w d racticd applications of atomic energy in this country of which &e public was not a w m (8). On December 29, 1951, the Atomic Energy Commission announced that SCientiS@ a t ita national reactor testing station in h,Idaho, bad for the first time produced electric power from atomic energy (f). Of a trial run on December 21 and 22 the announcement said,
“electrical power of more than loo kw. w88 senerated and used to operate the- pumps and other reactor equipment and to pr* vide light and electrical faoilitiea for the building that houses it. Cost w a ~not an essential factor in the power phaae of the Idaho reactor and the experiment in in no way intended to establish the fegsibility of producing electric power economically from nuclear
2541
k?esources NE
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53 S W y l i r o l p b n a
murceE.“
br *AS.-. .AI
_ I
LITERATURE CITED (1) Atomic Energy Commission,Ne- R e h e . Deo. 29, 1961. (a) Corps of Engineers, U. 8. Army, Final Report for 1942, General Data,TabIeS,“Monthly Mean OutEom” (minimumyear 1934). (3) Edison Electric Institute, estimate. (4) Federsl Power Commission, “Electric Power Statistics,” D e cember 1961. (6) Federal Power Commission.“Nstional Eleotric Rate Book,” 1961. (6) New Ymk T i m , Dee. 3. 1961. R E C E ~ Vfor E ~review Maroh 81. 1852.
ALFO~PTDD August 8, 1052.
Transportation R. M. EDGAR B O S O N AND MAINE RlllwloADAND MIINE CKNTRAL RILILRoIID.B0810U 14, MASS.
DISCu&sIONofNew England’s transpor tstionfacilitieashonldprop erly begin by looking, aa New Englanders have hiatoically looked, toward the ocean. meposition of the ~x states in the extreme northcomer of the -try has been described many timea; this pasition
A
does not’ by any put them at an insurmountable c o m p e t i t i v e in the reoeipt and distribution of fuel, raw kids, and manufsctured articles.
N e w England‘s transportation ag.nciea serve a compact ana which in charact& by a subatantid concentration of industry in various partn of the nix s t a b . The many 5 n n M W T ~which serve the area an d y important in mpplyfng New England with it. fuel M adl M substantid amount. Of M W materids rud in it. industries. RaiL0.d. bwan in New E n g h d in 1835 and now well ..rind by rail linea. The New %land the railroada mntIn Of $250,wx),m in immtnto plant and WUipmmt dncn the end Of War 11. and $29.OOO.wx) has baen went on port facilities. Actual expenditurr and commitments for highway construction exceed sBoo.wx).~. F’mwmsive and dEciently op.rated. the trannportdtion facilities of New England to undd mpodaty, and will continue to well Near England‘s economy, which u) to a in the f i ~ l d of
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TRANSPORTATION BY WATER to searsNew England’s entire coast from Bridgeport, indented with harbors and W Y of them are active porte. These m y harbors, including the grest port of and Others such as Po*nd, Maine, and R. I., handle vast qusntitiea of water-borne fuel. Cargoes Of bitumioouscoal from the Hampton Roade porta and tankers lcaded with crude oil, fuel oil, and w d i n e come in regularly from domentic and foreign sources of supply. Wood pulp, sulfur, sugar, rubber, wool, cotton, lumber, hides, and a long List of other materials reach New England induetries and conmming centera of population through them porta. In addition to the many private faoilitiea for unloading and &xhg fuela, mufact-, raw materials, and foodstUtrs in
Port,
bulk, recently improved facilities for the handling of general cargo are now buaily in senrice, with more to come. In Boston, Hoosac pier has been completely rebuilt, the H-c grain elevator has been monditioned and equipped for faater operation, and by the middle of 1952 new piers and facilities for better handling and of cargoes had the old f a c i l i t i e s a t Mystic Wharf. All of these are now owned by the state and are leased and operated by the Mystic Terminal Co., the waterfront operating subsidiary of the Boston and E r n e Railroad. The New Hsven Railroad’s piers and facilities in South Boston are similarly being enlarged are the &&,n and Albany-New York Cenand improved, tral~~ the harbor in East h t o n . waterfronta n t i o n ain &ton, on whiob mme $25,aOO,oaOSaa been spent by the state since the end of the war, have the great adand moat of them vantage of being served diecay by are dm directly acceeaible to trucks. There are no expensive or time-aonsuming lighterage or car doat operations required. ~
TRANSPORTATION HISTORY Inland transportation in New England grew from the ace&bility of many interior arena by crude roads and by the navigable river routes. Although there WBB some canal construction in
