Preparation and Properties Evaluation of Biolubricants Derived from

Article pubs.acs.org/JAFC

Preparation and Properties Evaluation of Biolubricants Derived from Canola Oil and Canola Biodiesel Rajesh V. Sharma, Asish K. R. Somidi, and Ajay K. Dalai* Catalysis and Chemical Reaction Engineering Laboratories, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A9, Canada ABSTRACT: This study demonstrates the evaluation and comparison of the lubricity properties of the biolubricants prepared from the feed stocks such as canola oil and canola biodiesel. Biolubricant from canola biodiesel has a low cloud and pour point properties, better friction and antiwear properties, low phase transition temperature, is less viscous, and has the potential to substitute petroleum-based automotive lubricants. Biolubricant from canola oil has high thermal stability and is more viscous and more effective at higher temperature conditions. This study elucidates that both the biolubricants are attractive, renewable, and ecofriendly substitutes for the petroleum-based lubricants. KEYWORDS: Canola oil, Canola biodiesel, biolubricant, epoxy ring-opening and esterification, lubricity

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INTRODUCTION Biomass-based materials such as biodiesel, biolubricants, bioplastics, surfactants, etc. are capable of substituting the fossil-based products and fuels and, hence, have the promising future market. Diesel fuel is being replaced by the biodiesel obtained from vegetable oils due to its engine compatibility.1,2 Biodiesel has a carbon foot print and basically originated from plants. Biodiesel is produced from edible and nonedible vegetable oils, and this technology is already commercialized.3−5 The lubricants obtained from vegetable oils are not much explored and has attracted more attention from researchers. Industry and automobile sectors extensively use lubricants for lubricating their machineries and materials. The demand for the lubricants is growing by 1.6% per year.6 The petroleumbased lubricants generate a significant amount of wastes, which increases the concern for pollution and are environmentally unsafe.7 Biolubricants are green lubricant in comparison with the crude oil derived lubricants because they are eco-friendly, renewable, and biodegradable.8−10 Also, they possess the characteristic properties required by the ideal lubricants.10,11 Biolubricants prepared from vegetable oils which have high oleic content can substitute conventional mineral oil-based lubricants.12 In this context, soyabean oil has been explored effectively for making a variety of lubricating base stocks, which find applications in chemical and automobile industries. However, lubricants obtained from vegetable oils have the drawback of poor oxidative stability, which can be improved by the removal of polyunsaturation present in the oil.13−15 Figures 1 and 2 explain the schematic representation of preparation of biolubricants from vegetable oil and biodiesel. Several reports are available on the conversion of the CC double bond to epoxy linkage by using homogeneous catalysts and ion-exchange resins. The epoxidation of mahua oil (Madhuca longifolia) and cotton seed oil was carried out using hydrogen peroxide as oxidant in the presence of mineral acids such as H2SO4/HNO3 as catalysts.16,17 The epoxidation of unsaturated triglycerides in the wild safflower oil was carried © XXXX American Chemical Society

Figure 1. Reaction scheme for the synthesis of canola oil biolubricant.

Received: December 2, 2014 Revised: March 13, 2015 Accepted: March 15, 2015

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DOI: 10.1021/jf505825k J. Agric. Food Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

Article

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

out using Amberlite IR-122 resin as catalyst.18 Also, Amberlite IR-120H resin was found to be active catalyst for the epoxidation of polyunsaturated canola triglycerides.12 A few studies have been reported on the vicinal diacylation of epoxidized vegetable oils to obtain the product biolubricant. Hwang and Erhan19 studied epoxy ring-opening by various linear and branched alcohols. Adhvaryu et al.20 synthesized acylated soybean oil derivatives (biolubricants) using different carboxylic anhydrides and pyridine as catalysts. The synthesis method reported by Salimon et al.21 for the acylation of ricinoleic acid includes sulfuric acid as a catalyst. Limited literature reports are available on the application of heterogeneous catalysts for the simultaneous oxirane ringopening and diacylation of epoxidized triglycerides in vegetable oils to obtain biolubricant (i.e., esterified product). Application of solid metal oxide catalysts for the preparation of biolubricants from vegetable oils not only promote green technology but also minimize workup procedures to separate the product and the catalyst can be reused several times.22,23 The present investigation deals with the synthesis of biolubricants from canola oil and canola biodiesel by using heterogeneous catalysts (Figures 1 and 2). As per our knowledge, this report finds novelty with the preparation of

Figure 2. Reaction scheme for the synthesis of biodiesel derived biolubricant.

Figure 3. 1H NMR spectra: (A) canola oil, (B) epoxidized canola oil, (C) biolubricant from canola oil, (D) D2O exchanged biolubricant from canola oil, (E) canola biodiesel, (F) epoxidized canola biodiesel, (G) biolubricant from canola biodiesel, and (H) D2O exchanged biolubricant from canola biodiesel. B


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Figure 4. 13C NMR spectra: (A) canola oil, (B) epoxidized canola oil, (C) biolubricant from canola oil, (D) canola biodiesel, (E) epoxidized canola biodiesel, and (F) biolubricant from canola biodiesel.

Where, N stands for HBr solution normality.

new value-added product biolubricant from canola biodiesel and the characteristic lubricity properties associated with it in comparison to canola oil biolubricant.

epoxy conversion (%)

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=

EXPERIMENTAL SECTION Chemicals and Reagents. Edible grade canola oil (Loblaws Inc. Montreal, Canada), canola biodiesel (Milligan Biofuels Inc., Saskatoon, Canada), glacial acetic acid (reagent grade), 30 wt % hydrogen peroxide (GR grade) (EMD Chemicals Inc., Darmstadt, Germany), Amberlite IR-120H (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), Amberlyst-15 (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), Wijs’ solution (VWR, San Diego, CA), ethyl acetate, and 33 wt % hydrobromic acid in acetic acid (EMD Chemicals Inc., Montreal, Canada) were purchased. Analytical Methods. The iodine value (% unsaturation) analysis was carried out as per the AOCS Cd 1−25 standard method. The amount of epoxy content (oxirane oxygen) in the oil was calculated using AOCS Cd 9-57 volumetric titration method. Each experiment was repeated thrice and found to have ±3% error in the conversion. Equations 1 and 2 give the appropriate formulas employed for determining the change in the percentage unsaturation and the epoxy content in the oils during the course of the reaction. oxirane oxygen content mL of HBr consumed × N × 1.60 = mass of sample, g

oxirane value at O h − oxirane value at time (t ) × 100 oxirane value at O h (2)

Kinematic viscosity, cloud point, and pour point were measured as per the ASTM methods. The oxidative stability measurements were carried out by AOCS methods. Lubricity of the products was performed according to ASTM methods. Thermogravimetric analysis was carried to determine the weight loss of materials. The details of the analysis procedure and equipment used for the determination of tribological properties of biolubricants are described in the literature.6,23

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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE

Epoxidation. The unsaturated fatty acids present in the feed stocks such as canola oil and canola biodiesel were epoxidized by using hydrogen peroxide and acetic acid.6 A sample of 22.6 g of canola oil/ biodiesel, acetic acid, and Amberlite IR −120H (22 wt % w.r.t to g of feed stock taken) were placed in a three neck round-bottom flask and maintained at 65 ± 2 °C. Then, aqueous hydrogen peroxide (30 wt %) was added with a molar ratio of 1.5:1 (unsaturation in canola oil/ canola biodiesel: H2O2). The reaction was continued at 65 ± 2 °C for 8 h with rapid stirring. The oil phase was extracted using ethyl acetate as solvent and was separated by evaporation. The conversion was assessed by the iodine value (7.5 and 7.6 g of I2/100 g for canola oil and biodiesel, respectively), oxirane content (5.6 and 5.8%), and glycol

(1) C


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Figure 5. FTIR spectrum: (A) canola oil, (B) epoxidized canola oil, (C) biolubricant from canola oil, (D) canola biodiesel, (E) epoxidized canola biodiesel, and (F) biolubricant from canola biodiesel. content (0.08 and 0.06 mol/100 g) of canola oil and canola biodiesel, respectively. Further, the product formation was also confirmed by spectroscopic techniques such as 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and FT-IR. Epoxy Ring-Opening of Epoxidized Canola Oil/Epoxidized Biodiesel. The oxirane ring-opening and diacylation reactions were performed in a single pot. Typically, 30.0 g of epoxidized canola oil/ epoxidized biodiesel, 45 g of acetic anhydride, and Amberlyst-15 (10 wt % of epoxidized product) were mixed in the three neck roundbottom flask and stirred for 15 h at 130 °C. The percentage epoxy conversion was measured periodically by the oxirane content method (eq 1), and the product formation was also identified with FTIR, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR analysis.

canola biodiesel exhibited no signal between 120 and 140 ppm, indicating the conversion of the olefinic carbon (−CC−) to epoxy linkage, given by the signal appearing between 53 and 58 ppm. Biolubricant from canola oil and biolubricant from canola biodiesel showed no signal between 53 and 58 ppm, which indicates the conversion of epoxy linkage to ester linkage. This is indicated by a new signal at 170 ppm, which is attributed to carbonyl carbon. The presence of glycerol backbone in canola oil biolubricant is indicated by the shift at 62 and 68 ppm for α and β carbon atoms of the glycerol backbone, respectively. Figure 4 also confirmed the presence of −CH3 carbon of −COOCH3 that appeared at 51 ppm, which is characteristic of canola biodiesel. Therefore, the formation of canola oil biolubricant and canola biodiesel-derived biolubricant is confirmed by the NMR spectra. FT-IR Spectroscopy. FT-IR transmittance spectra of the products and reactants were recorded to confirm the formation of biolubricant on the basis of functional groups present. FT-IR spectra are shown in Figure 5. Canola oil and canola biodiesel show the bands at 3007 and 738 cm−1, which are due to the bending and stretching vibrations of H−CC−H. No bands appeared at 3007 and 738 cm−1 indicating that −CC− bonds in the oil are converted into epoxide. Epoxy band was found to appear at 831 cm−1.24 The FT-IR spectra of biolubricant from canola oil and biolubricant from canola biodiesel have no band at 831 cm−1, indicating the absence of the epoxy group. However, two new bands appeared at 725 and 604 cm−1, with also a corresponding increased intensity of the band at 1750 cm−1. This confirmed the ester structure present in the products. Hence, FT-IR analysis indicated the formation of biolubricant from canola oil and canola biodiesel which was also confirmed by NMR results. Low Temperature Properties. The cold flow temperature properties of the biolubricants from canola oil and canola biodiesel were represented by the cloud point and pour point. These properties of lubricants derived from vegetable oil are poor, hence, making it difficult to use in cold countries. It can be improved by reducing the aliphatic carbon chain length. Table 1 represents the low-temperature properties of epoxidized canola oil, epoxidized biodiesel, biolubricant from canola oil, and biolubricant from canola biodiesel. The epoxidized canola oil and epoxidized canola biodiesel have

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Characterization of Products. NMR Spectroscopy. Figure 3 represents 1H NMR spectra of starting materials and products. The olefinic hydrogens (H−CC−H) of canola oil and canola biodiesel showed a chemical shift between 5.2 and 5.4 ppm. These proton shifts were found to be absent in the epoxidized canola oil and epoxidized canola biodiesel, indicating that all olefinic groups are converted to the epoxy group. 1H NMR spectra of epoxidized canola oil and epoxidized canola biodiesel showed a chemical shift between 2.7 and 3.1 ppm due to the vicinity of epoxy oxygen.12 The CH2 proton αto epoxy group showed a chemical shift at 1.9 ppm, while the βCH2 proton has a chemical shift at 1.6 ppm. The terminal −CH3 proton indicates the chemical shift at 0.8−1.0 ppm. 1H NMR spectra of canola oil biolubricant and biolubricant from canola biodiesel show a chemical shift at 5.0 ppm, which represents both CH− protons associated with the carbonyl group. The D2O exchanged 1H NMR spectrum of canola oil biolubricant, and biolubricant from canola biodiesel confirmed the absence of hydroxyl proton in the molecule which indicates the formation of diacylated product after the epoxy ringopening step. Figure 3 confirmed the presence of methine proton of glycerol backbone by the signal appearing between 5.2 and 5.4 ppm and also the presence of −COOCH3 proton that appeared at 3.7 ppm, which is characteristic of canola biodiesel. Figure 4 represents 13C NMR spectra of starting materials and products. Canola oil and canola biodiesel showed the signal appearing between 120 and 140 ppm due to the existence of olefinic carbon atoms. Epoxidized canola oil and epoxidized D


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biolubricant from canola oil. It might be because of less number of aliphatic carbon present in the biolubricant derived from canola biodiesel, which creates less steric hindrance and fewer hydrogen bondings as compared with the biolubricant derived from canola oil (Figure 2). Therefore, biolubricant derived from biodiesel can be used as lubricant for automobiles at low temperature. Hence, it can be anticipated that the biolubricant from biodiesel has a better future prospect for automobile sector. Friction and Anti-Wear Properties. Lubricity testing was performed according to the report by Sripada et al.26 All the samples were tested twice, and the average value is reported. The wear scar diameter of standard diesel sample was found to be 600 μm. With the addition of 1% of canola oil biolubricant to the standard diesel sample, the diameter of the wear scar was found to reduce to 130 μm, while 1% of biolubricant derived from canola biodiesel integrated in the standard diesel sample showed a wear scar diameter of 95 μm. It was noticed that canola oil biolubricant resulted in more wear scar on the steel test ball as compared with biolubricant from canola biodiesel (Figure 6). This can be due to the presence of more steric hindrance and intramolecular hydrogen bonding present in canola biolubricant, which increases the viscosity and hence decreases the solubility in the standard diesel sample and resulted in more wear scar diameter (130 μm). Furthermore, a lower number of aliphatic carbon atoms is present in biodiesel biolubricant as compared with canola biolubricant, which makes it less viscous and less nonpolar and, hence, increases the solubility in diesel fuel and results in less wear scar (95 μm). The better lubricity property of biodiesel biolubricant can also be explained by the presence of ester oxygen moieties in 1, 9, and 10 positions, which are free of hydrogen bonding and help to reduce the friction by developing the antifrictional film on metal surfaces.27 Table 2 indicates that with the increase in lubricant content in pure diesel fuel, the wear scar on the steel test ball is decreased.

Table 1. Tribological Properties of Products low temperature property

entry 1 2 3 4

product epoxidized canola oil epoxidized canola biodiesel biolubricant from canola oil biolubricant from canola biodiesel

kinematic viscosity (cSt)

cloud point (°C)

pour point (°C)

15

9

−

−

−

6

0

−

−

−

−3

−9

0

670

56.1

−12

−18

116

19

76.3

40 °C 100 °C

oxidative stability (OIT) h

the cloud points of 15 and 6 °C and the pour points of 9 and 0 °C, respectively. It was found that cloud and pour point of epoxidized biodiesel are low as compared with epoxidized canola oil, which can be due to the presence of less number of aliphatic carbon atoms present in epoxidized biodiesel. Hence, an increase in the aliphatic carbon chain length reduced the low-temperature properties. Also, these low-temperature properties can be improved by adding the ester linkage in the epoxidized molecules, which promote steric hindrance. The cloud points of biolubricant from canola oil and biolubricant from canola biodiesel were found to be −3 and −12 °C, while pour points were −9 and −18 °C, respectively. Hence, it elucidates that biolubricant obtained from biodiesel has better low-temperature properties as compared to biolubricant obtained from canola oil, which can be due to the less steric hindrance. Hence, biolubricant from canola biodiesel is superior for low-temperature applications and has better future prospects for the automotive industry as compared to biolubricant from canola oil. Viscosity. The viscosity of the fluid defines the effectiveness of the lubricant to lubricate the contact surface of the metals. The kinematic viscosity of canola biolubricant and biodiesel biolubricant were measured at 40 °C and found to be 0 and 116 cSt, whereas at 100 °C, it was found to be 670 and 19 cSt (Table 1). The viscosity index for biolubricant from canola biodiesel was found to be 185. High viscous nature of canola oil biolubricant is because of the addition of ester linkage in the oil at the unsaturation. The increase in the viscosity is also attributed to the intramolecular hydrogen bonding of the ester linkages.25 Canola oil biolubricant is highly viscous and can be used as a lubricant for high temperature, high load, and highspeed operations like heavy machinery. However, biolubricant from canola biodiesel is less viscous as compared with

Table 2. Wear Scar Diameter of Bio-lubricants Diluted in Low Lubricity Diesel wear scar diameter (μm) biolubricant added in pure diesel (%)

biolubricant from canola oil

biolubricant from biodiesel

1 2 5 10

130 125 120 115

95 90 86 81

Thermogravimetric (TGA) Analysis. Thermal stability of canola oil, epoxdized canola oil, canola biolubricant, biodiesel,

Figure 6. HFRR wear scar images of (A) standard diesel fuel, (B) 1% canola biolubricant, and (C) 1% biodiesel biolubricant. E


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Figure 7. TGA thermogram of (A) canola oil, (B) epoxidized canola oil, (C) canola biolubricant, (D) biodiesel, (E) epoxidized biodiesel, and (F) biodiesel biolubricant.

can be due to the arrangement of the saturated molecules that influence the crystallization of the compound. Hence, biolubricant from biodiesel has better low-temperature properties. Oxidation Stability Study. The oxidation stability of biolubricants depends on the degree of unsaturation present in the molecules which are very prone to oxidation. These oxidation processes of lubricants take place during the combustion process of the fuel inside the engine, hence it is a critical parameter.28 Canola biolubricant showed a lower value of 56.1 h, whereas biodiesel biolubricant gave 76.3 h of oxidative induction time (Table 1). This increase in the oxidative stability is because of the existence of short chain ester linkage in canola biodiesel biolubricant as compared with canola biolubricant.27 Hence, biodiesel biolubricant is close to 1.5 times more stable when compared with canola biolubricant, under similar oxidative conditions, which makes it more suitable for automotive applications. Catalyst Reusability. In the present study, the two-step process was demonstrated for preparation of biolubricant, hence two different heterogeneous catalysts were used (i.e., Amberlite IR-120H and Amberlyst-15). The reusability of the catalysts was tested up to the third run. The reusability procedure was followed as in the literature.6 The conversion decreased marginally in both the steps, and both the catalysts were used successfully up to three times. In conclusion, in the present study two different biolubricants were prepared from canola oil and canola biodiesel using Amberlite IR-120H for the epoxidation step and Amberlyst-15 for the simultaneous ring opening and esterification step. NMR and FT-IR spectral analyses confirmed the formation of products. Biolubricant from canola biodiesel has good low temperatue properties (−12 °C and −18 °C), kinematic viscosity (19 cSt at 100 °C), low friction and antiwear scar (95 μm), and high oxidative stability (76.3 h). Therefore, biolubricant derived from biodiesel can be used for low temperature and general application like automotive lubricants. However, canola oil biolubricant has a cloud point of −3 °C and pour point of −9 °C, kinematic viscosity measured at 373 K is 670 cSt, friction and antiwear scar (130 μm), and oxidative stability (56.1 h). As biolubricant from canola oil has high thermal stability (305 °C), and is highly viscous, even at high temperature, it can be used at high temperature, heavy load, and high speed operations such as

epoxidized biodiesel, and biodiesel biolubricant was studied by thermo gravimetric differential thermal analyzer (TG/DTA). The detailed analysis procedure is described in the literature.26 The graphs of weight loss against temperature are shown in Figure 7. It is clear from the graph that canola oil, epoxidized canola oil, and canola biolubricant are thermally stable below 305 °C. Maximum weight loss (90−95% wt) was observed in all these three materials at the temperatures 460, 461, and 530 °C, respectively. However, canola biodiesel, epoxidized canola biodiesel, and biodiesel biolubricant are found to be thermally stable below the temperatures 305, 160, and 194 °C, respectively, and about 90−95% weight loss was found for each sample at the temperatures 462, 251, 370 °C, respectively (Table 3). Hence, it is conclusive that canola biolubricant is Table 3. Thermal Stability Data of Feed and the Products temperature (°C) product

stability

15−20 wt % loss

90−95 wt % loss

Canola oil epoxidized canola oil Canola biolubricant biodiesel epoxidized biodiesel biodiesel biolubricant

333 319 309 309 160 194

375 370 364 360 204 247

460 461 530 462 251 370

thermally more stable as compared to biolubricant from canola biodiesel, which can be due to the presence of intra molecular hydrogen bonding. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) also confirms that canola biolubricant can be more useful for hightemperature applications, whereas biodiesel biolubricant is useful for low-temperature applications. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Analysis. Figure 8 represents a DSC thermogram of epoxidized canola oil, epoxidized canola biodiesel, canola biolubricant, and biodiesel biolubricant. The exothermic crystallization peaks of epoxy canola oil and epoxy canola biodiesel appeared at −7 and −12 °C, respectively, because epoxy canola oil is well-stacked due to intramolecular forces.25 Epoxy canola biodiesel crystallizes at lower temperature because of the presence of the cis epoxy linkage.26 Biolubricant from canola oil shows the peak at −118 °C, and the biolubricant from biodiesel showed no peak for exothermic crystallization up to −140 °C, which F


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Figure 8. DSC thermogram of (A) epoxidized canola oil, (B) epoxidized canola biodiesel, (C) canola biolubricant, and (D) biodiesel biolubricant. (11) Battersby, N. S.; Pack, S. E.; Watkinson, R. J. A correlation between the biodegradability of oil products in the CEC L-33-T-82 and modified sturm tests. Chemosphere 1992, 24, 1989−2000. (12) Mungroo, R.; Pradhan, N. C.; Goud, V. V.; Dalai, A. K. Epoxidation of canola oil with hydrogen peroxide catalyzed by acidic ion exchange resin. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2008, 85, 887−896. (13) Johansson, L. E.; Lundin, S. T. Copper catalysts in the selective hydrogenation of soybean and rapeseed oils: I. the activity of the copper chromite catalyst. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1979, 56, 974−980. (14) Sinadinovic-Fiser, S.; Jankovic, M.; Petrovic, Z. S. Kinetics of in situ epoxidation of soybean oil in bulk catalyzed by ion exchange resin. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2001, 78, 725−731. (15) Adhvaryu, A.; Erhan, S. Z. Epoxidized soybean oil as a potential source of high-temperature lubricants. Ind. Crops Prod. 2002, 15, 247− 254. (16) Goud, V. V.; Patwardhan, A. V.; Pradhan, N. C. Studies on the epoxidation of mahua oil (Madhumicaindica) by hydrogen peroxide. Bioresour. Technol. 2006, 97, 1365−1371. (17) Dinda, S.; Patwardhan, A. V.; Goud, V. V.; Pradhan, N. C. Epoxidation of cottonseed oil by aqueous hydrogen peroxide catalysed by liquid inorganic acids. Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 3737−3744. (18) Meshram, P. D.; Puri, R. G.; Patil, H. V. Epoxidation of wild safflower (Carthamusoxyacantha) oil with peroxy acid in presence of strongly acidic cation exchange resin IR-122 as catalyst. Int. J. ChemTech Res. 2011, 3, 1152−1163. (19) Hwang, H. S.; Erhan, S. Z. Modification of epoxidized soybean oil for lubricant formulations with improved oxidative stability and low pour point. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2001, 78, 1179−1184. (20) Adhvaryu, A.; Liu, Z. S.; Erhan, S. Z. Synthesis of novel alkoxylated triacyl glycerols and their lubricant base oil properties. Ind. Crops Prod. 2005, 21, 113−119. (21) Salimon, J.; Salih, N.; Yousif, E. Biolubricants: Raw materials, chemical modifications and environmental benefits. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2010, 112, 519−530. (22) Fadhel, A. Z.; Pollet, P.; Liotta, C. L.; Eckert, C. A. Combining the benefits of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis with tunable solvents and near critical water. Molecules 2010, 15, 8400−8424. (23) Sharma, R. V.; Soni, K. K.; Dalai, A. K. Preparation, characterization and application of sulfated Ti-SBA-15 catalyst for oxidation of benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde. Catal. Commun. 2012, 29, 87−91. (24) Vlcek, T.; Petrovic, Z. S. Optimization of the chemoenzymatic epoxidation of soybean oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2006, 83, 247−252.

heavy machinery. This study shows that both the biolubricants are effective, attractive, renewable, and thus have good characteristics as industrial lubricants.

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AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +1 306 966 4771. Fax: +1 306 966 4777. Funding

The authors acknowledge Saskatchewan Agricultural Development Fund (ADF) for providing funding for this research. Notes

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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REFERENCES

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Preparation and Properties Evaluation of Biolubricants Derived from

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