Properly Functioning Scientific Equipment in Developing Countries Scientific research is the cornerstone of national growth, yet properly functioning scientific equipment cannot be taken for granted in developing countries.
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ithout a doubt, scientific research has contributed immensely to human progress and to the development of modern society. Yet, the way in which scientific endeavors are pursued around the world is marked by clear inequalities (1). Developing countries generally spend less money on scientific research than industrialized countries (in relation to gross domestic product), and the number of scientists is smaller (in relation to population). For example, recruitment of new scientists in Africa has been very slow in the past few years. In addition, the number of Ph.D. holders of African descent who live and work outside their home countries far exceeds the total number of African-born scientists with Ph.D.s who work in Africa (2). Because of the uneven global distribution of resources needed to build and maintain scientific capacity, a large share of new research is created in industrialized countries, and much of that Cecilia B. Öman science neglects the problems that afflict most International Foundation for of the world’s population (1). This unbalanced Science (Sweden) distribution generates serious problems for not Karniyus Shingu only the scientific communities in the developGamaniel ing countries but also development itself. University of Maiduguri In addition to a critical mass of trained staff, (Nigeria) another important factor in the technological Marian E. Addy development of a country is the availabiliUniversity of Ghana ty of properly functioning scientific equipment (3). Unfortunately, many laboratories in developing countries are underequipped because of a lack of funds. Some institutions have poured their hardearned funds into buying capital equipment, only to discover that the instruments cannot be used for reasons related to installation, servicing, and maintenance. Using scientific equipment in a developing country is often surprisingly difficult because of infrastructure and climate conditions (4). Many universities and institutions have reported that maintenance and servicing are often a low priority (5–7 ). A 700-respondent survey conducted by Gaillard and Tullberg showed that, apart from insufficient funds, lack of access to functioning equipment was the main constraint to scientific research in Africa (8). The lack of competent technicians and support staff was identified as the fourth major problem. (The third
problem identified in the survey was poor library facilities.) The low number of instrument repair technicians in relation to the number of researchers at many universities and institutions is confirmed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Gaillard and Ouattar (9, 10). As a consequence, researchers in many developing countries must rely on foreign expertise for repairs. Broken equipment is sent to a foreign supplier or a foreign technician must come to make the repairs, with the associated extra costs in time and money. Purchasing spare parts in developing countries is often difficult (5). Therefore, scientific equipment may remain idle for long periods of time. Experience has shown that even given developing countries’ limited funds, in some cases, purchasing new equipment is easier than repairing existing pieces. As a consequence of the lack of properly installed, serviced, and maintained equipment, universities and institutions cannot train scientific staff and conduct research at a level comparable to that of similar institutions in industrialized countries; this results in research output that is often less than expected. Therefore, improving the scientific infrastructure in developing countries is a high priority so that scientists can more easily conduct research in their home countries. Some countries and universities have acted on this problem. For example, the government of Ghana has empowered ministerial departments to purchase scientific equipment, and the universities have established purchasing departments. To ensure proper equipment maintenance and servicing, Ghana has set up a special center and the universities are conducting workshops. Similarly, Nigeria has established a program to coordinate the purchasing, servicing, and maintenance of research and teaching equipment for its universities. Yet, even in these countries, more information and better coordination of activities are needed. Some international organizations have acted. For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) has supported countries in Africa in their efforts to establish laboratory systems for HIV testing through technical assistance and training staff (11). Although the ultimate responsibility for building the scientific capacity of a country lies with the country itself, international donor and aid organizations should assist in strengthening the research infrastructure in developing countries. Unfortunately, very few aid organizations provide adequate instrument servicing and maintenance support (10). One factor that does help is that certain scientific equipment is now more reliable. Microprocessors and computers are built right into equipment, increasing quality, lengthening the time between failures, and reducing maintenance (12). In addition, the condition of scientific equipment is closely linked to the economic situation—as economies advance, the situation can be expected to improve. The objective of this article is to identify the most important constraints to properly functioning equipment; suggest solutions; and propose sound, long-term, demand-driven plans that 5274
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relevant stakeholders can consider and act on. Although the article addresses researchers, it is also valid for other users of scientific equipment, such as those performing analyses on medical, commercial, police, and import and export samples, as well as stakeholders using scientific equipment in their businesses. The article is based on experiences from western Africa but is also relevant for other regions.
Key problems Fifty technicians, researchers, and policymakers from 8 countries in western Africa met with representatives from concerned organizations and equipment manufacturers to discuss real-world issues (13). The attendees agreed that purchasing, servicing, and maintenance of scientific equipment were not being given appropriate attention. Detailed procedures for servicing and maintenance are almost always lacking, and the management of equipment-related logistics is marked by excessive bureaucracy. Important general constraints include inadequate access to product information; uncoordinated selection of new equipment; long order-to-delivery times; insufficient post-purchase interaction with manufacturers and lack of warranties; and a shortage of user and maintenance manuals, spare parts, and servicing tools. Equally important is the non-involvement of technicians. They are not sufficiently involved in the selection and installation of new equipment and often are not provided with appropriate training; career profiles for technical staff are often unavailable. Severe constraints on instrument sensitivity are related to environmental conditions. Most equipment is manufactured for temperate weather conditions, and it is often not well protected against inhospitable climates. The weather in African countries can be dusty, hot, and humid. To reduce the negative impact of humidity, many laboratories require dehumidifiers during the rainy season; in practice, these are often inadequate, and equipment becomes damaged (14). Also, equipment is manufactured for use with a stable electric power supply. Erratic electricity in some countries frequently results in blown fuses or burned-out transformers and switching devices. Minor as they may seem, blown fuses can cause severe delays when spare parts are not readily available. Moreover, sudden power outages while a computer is operating can damage its hard disk. Built-in computers and advanced software have self-diagnostics, which is a strong maintenance tool (12), but availability is limited. Some manufacturers will not give these diagnostics to the equipment’s owner.
Mitigation measures Funding. Too few funds are available for purchasing, operating, servicing, and maintaining equipment. Efforts should be made to sensitize politicians and economic stakeholders to the fact that investing in scientific infrastructure has a positive impact on the economic development of a country. National funding programs should be established, from which money can be released in an efficient, timely, and transparent manner. The possibility of at© 2006 AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
tracting funds from the private sector should also be explored for projects of mutual benefit. Purchasing. Product information and other materials must be made easily available for technicians and researchers. Agreements should be negotiated with the manufacturers to demonstrate new equipment; deliver spare parts; and provide service manuals, maintenance and repair contracts, training and education, telephone services, and long-term warranty contracts. National governments should be encouraged to grant customs exemptions to equipment for research and teaching purposes. Also, prudent use of credit cards would facilitate purchasing, especially of items from abroad. Harmonization of equipment brands. To increase flexibility and interchangeability of spare parts and servicing tools, equipment and other laboratory items should be purchased from a limited number of manufacturers. Countries within a given region should be encouraged to buy similar equipment and other items from the same manufacturer. This would also encourage technicians from a manufacturing company to move around the region to service and maintain their company’s equipment. Also, certain manufacturers have developed networks of collaborating offices in developing countries to facilitate the contacts with that manufacturer. Climate and power supply. Appropriate infrastructure and premises must be used to protect equipment from dust, heat, humidity, and unsteady power supply. Provisions should be made for dust-free environments; air conditioning; dehumidifiers during the rainy season; and power-supply protection, including voltage stabilizers and replacement batteries. Installation. The technicians who will install, maintain, and service the equipment must be identified and involved before its selection and purchase. Manuals, spare parts, and servicing tools. User manuals, service and maintenance handbooks, electrical circuit diagrams, calibration equipment, servicing tools, and spare parts must be made available. Such items can be purchased or requested free from manufacturers, and parts from obsolete equipment can be reused. Workshops and training programs. It is obviously important to continuously bring stakeholders together to share experiences and discuss future activities and agreements. Moreover, training (and retraining) programs must be arranged, sometimes in collaboration with manufacturers, for technicians and users to address troubleshooting, servicing, maintenance, and repair of equipment. Training should be hands-on (experienced personnel only) and based on prevailing situations and processes that accommodate new trends and new equipment. For example, successful training courses arranged by the Soil and Plant Analytical Laboratories Network of Africa (SPALNA) provided for the actual repair of
equipment during the sessions, and the participants each received a repair kit. Salary scales and safety and health training programs must be created for technicians in countries that lack them. Technicians should also be encouraged to attend equipment fairs and exhibits. As a complement, Internet access should be facilitated so that technicians can seek consultations through advisory websites. Advances in telecommunications in conjunction with selfdiagnostics make remote diagnosis and repair feasible (12). A remote repair technician can instruct an on-site technician on board replacement, software repair, and other problems over the telephone. The establishment of a regional equipment maintenance center would minimize duplication of effort and maximize human and material resources. Development of databases. Comprehensive databases should be established and managed for efficient information sharing. The databases can compile information such as the status and condition of existing equipment, its location, sources of supplies and spare parts, contact information for manufacturers and their service personnel, and ongoing research projects.
Action at a higher level Given the identified problems and proposed solutions, a framework of firm action plans is hereby proposed. The strategy is long-term, and its implementation requires support and involvement from a variety of stakeholders. The plans are primarily built on maintaining and forming new equipment networks and service and research centers. Networks and service and research centers. For several years, equipment issues have been addressed by established networks, including the Network of Users of Scientific Equipment in Eastern and Southern Africa (NUSESA), the Network of Instrument Technical Personnel and User Scientists of Bangladesh (NITUB), the Network for Analytical and Bioassay Services in Africa (NABSA), and SPALNA. These programs are all worthy of supplementary financial and other support to strengthen their activities. Additional networks should be established in regions that have none; the existing networks should be instrumental in their development. National and regional service centers can serve as pools of competent technical personnel who repair instruments and offer expertise. They can also act as reference centers to which technicians can turn for information, spare parts, repair equipment, and service manuals. The centers should charge fees for their services so they can become self-sustaining. A successful example is the Scientific Instrumentation Centre of the Industrial Research Institute in Ghana. Likewise, Nigeria has five equipment maintenance centers where technicians who have been taught by manufacturers train other trainers and run workshops. These technicians get incentive packages calculated as a percentage of their regular salaries. A U G U S T 1 , 2 0 0 6 / A N A LY T I C A L C H E M I S T R Y
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In addition, regional, national, or institutional research centers should set up instrumentation laboratories with capital equipment to serve external researchers. In eastern Africa, NABSA has shared equipment regionally for several years at the NMR Centre, the Mass Spectrometry Laboratory (both at the University of Botswana), and participating laboratories in Botswana, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Kenya, and Tanzania. The Central Science Laboratory serving Nigerian universities is another successful example. It houses capital equipment in a special building that has a steady power supply, and the necessary assortment of chemicals and consumables are available. Users participate in the daily operation of the laboratory, are represented on its management board, and are charged a token sum for laboratory services. Policies and guidelines. Mitigation of the constraints identified in this article can be addressed through strategic policies, including written guidelines and procedures, which can be developed at the institutional, national, and regional levels. Policies at the institutional level can address purchasing (standardization of equipment brands, optimization of equipment resources, and agreements with manufacturers), installation (procedure), servicing and maintenance (routines, training, and salary scales for technicians), equipment use (standard operating procedures and good laboratory practices), and stakeholder participation (technicians, users, policy makers, manufacturers). Policies at the national level should target investments in scientific equipment infrastructure and the development of service and research centers. Policies at the regional level can cover synergetic solutions, such as regional networks and service and research centers.
successfully implemented. In addition, some current activities need strong backing from national authorities and international donor and aid organizations. Buea University (Cameroon) is acknowledged for hosting a workshop on these issues, and the country representatives from Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo are thanked for their contributions. The following organizations are gratefully acknowledged for supporting the workshop: International Foundation for Science, Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, International Science Programme at Uppsala University (Sweden), Organization of the Islamic Conference Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation, Wellcome Trust, Third World Academy of Science, International Center for Theoretical Physics, International Organization for Chemical Sciences in Development, Bruker Biospin SA, and DNA Global Projects. We also thank NUSESA, NITUB, SPALNA, and NABSA for sharing their experiences.
Cecilia B. Öman is a scientific program coordinator at the International Foundation for Science (Sweden); her work focuses on water resources. Karniyus Shingu Gamaniel is a professor and dean of the faculty of pharmacy at the University of Maiduguri (Nigeria); his interest is pharmacology. Marian E. Addy is a biochemistry professor at the University of Ghana. Address correspondence about this article to Öman at the International Foundation for Science, Karlavägen 108 (V), SE-11526 Stockholm, Sweden (
[email protected]).
References (1) (2) (3)
Conclusion Despite the overwhelming importance of scientific research in the quest for the sustainable development of modern societies, universities and research institutions in developing countries continue to suffer from inadequate scientific equipment. The scientific workforce cannot be trained and research cannot be conducted at a level comparable to that of other similar institutions worldwide if the essential instruments, equipment, and facilities are unavailable or are not maintained. This situation must be acknowledged as one of the major reasons research output from certain countries is only a fraction of global scientific productivity. A comparison of different countries in western Africa indicated that some constraints were common to all; however, other problems had been solved at the national level in some countries but not in others. This reiterates the need for regional cooperation. In addition, some constraints were already being addressed by national and regional networks, including NUSESA, NITUB, SPALNA, and NABSA. This situation has been discussed for >30 years, and some actions have been taken. Surveys, workshops, training courses, and conferences have been held; networks have been initiated; and equipment centers established. Still, the situation is severe, and additional, sustainable actions are necessary. Devoted stakeholders must participate fully so that the new activities can be 5276
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