INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
July, 1927
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Protecting the Eyes of Chemical Workers’ By J. E. Hannum THEEYESIGHTCONSERVATION COUNCILOB AMERICA, SEW YORK,Ii. Y.
ROTECTION of the eyes from the numerous hazards which exist in various industrial occupations is one of the most important phases of organized safety work. The elimination of eye hazards should be considered the major undertaking in providing for the safety of workers. The permanent loss of sight is one of the most tragic afflictions that can befall anyone. Aside from the human suffering the fact that the man blinded in industry is usually forced to give up his occupatibn is a blow to ambition from which even the strongest may never recover. With his accustomed means of support gone it is difficult for him to adjust himself to new conditions and he becomes an economic liability, all because of the failure of some one, or himself it may be, to protect his eyes properly. The few instances of lost eyes which may be the experience of any one plant, when extended to include the entire United States, become multiplied to 15,000 persons who are blind as the result of industrial accidents. Certainly, most of these accidents could have been prevented. The eye is easily injured because it is very delicate and even minor injuries may become serious. Many of the dangers to which the eyes are constantly exposed are averted by natural protection. On all sides except the front, the eyeball is surrounded by the strong bony structure of the skull, the edges of which protrude in front to give added protection. The front part of the eyeball, which is exposed, is protected by the eyelids and eyelashes, and a constant flow of tears endeavors to wash away fine particles of dust and dirt which may have gotten past the eyelids. But natural protection is not alone sufficient to guard the eyes against the severe strains and peculiar hazards which have been brought about by our modern industrial processes and factory methods. The exposed surface of the eyeball may be easily pierced by’a sharp particle such as a fine steel chip. The delicate lining of the eyelids readily becomes inflamed and is very susceptible to infection. For these reasons, as well as many others, such a thing as a minor eye injury rarely exists, for, as has been said, “they all possess potential possibilities that should create anxiety until the safety point is reached.”
P
E x t e n t of Eye Accidents
Conditions which may result in serious injury to the eyes of workers exist in every kind of industrial work. In many industries eye injuries are of greater frequency than injuries t o any other part of the body. According to the National Safety Council about one-tenth of the two million annual industrial accidents in the United States result in injuries to the eyes. Some individual states report a higher proportion. For instance, in California for the period from 1917 to 1921, 13.1 per cent of all permanent injuries from industrial accidents were eye injuries. I n Vermont for a period of two years ending in 1920, eye injuries were 20.9 per cent of all industrial accidents. C o s t of Eye I n j u r i e s
The cost of permanent injuries to the eyes of industrial workers, based upon compensation awards alone, is far in excess of the cost of any other permanent injury. The Department of Labor and Industry of Pennsylvania furnishes 1
Received February 20, 1927
complete data in support of this statement, in so far as it applies to that state. A summary of permanent injuries for the period from 1916 to 1924, inclusive, shows that $7,210,661 was the amount of compensation awarded for a total of 5163 lost eyes. This was 39.3 per cent of the total compensation awarded for all classes of permanent injuries; was almost twice the next largest award, which was for loss of hands; and was approximately equal to the combined awards for all other losses, consisting of legs, arms, feet, It seems reasonable fingers, phalanges, and miscellaneous to suppose that what is true of Pennsylvania and other larger industrial states is applicable to the United States as a whole. N a t i o n a l Code f o r P r o t e c t i o n of H e a d s a n d Eyes of I n d u s t r i a l Workers
The existence of eye hazards is so widespread that any attempt to classify them according to the kind of industry would be impracticable. A much more satisfactory classification is by operations and processes, as is given in the Kational Code for the Protection of the Heads and Eyes of Industrial Workers. This code was prepared in 1920 and revised in 1922 by a group of men representative of the interests most closely concerned with the problem of eye protection. It has been approved as an “American Standard” by the American Engineering Standards Committee and is issued by the Sational Bureau of Standards. Every one concerned with the elimination of eye hazards from industry should be guided by the provisions of this code. The Kational Safety Council has issued an excellent interpretation of the code in a pamphlet entitled “Safe Practices: Goggles.” A comprehensive treatment of the entire subject of eye protection is contained in the chapter on Eye Protection in the book entitled “Eye Sight Conservation Survey,” recently published by the Eye Sight Conservation Council. Classification of Eye H a z a r d s
The operations or processes in which protection must be given to the operator’s head or eyes, or both, are divided, in the code, into the following nine groups: Group A-Processes where protection from relatively large flying objects is required Group B-Processes where protection from dust and small flying particles is required. Group C-Operations where protection from dust and wind is required. Group D-Processes where protection from splashing metal is required. Group E-Processes where protection from gases, fumes, and liquids is required. Group F-Processes where protection from an excessive amount of dust and small flying particles is required. Group G-Operations where protection is required from reflected light or glare. Group H-Processes where protection from injurious radiant energy, with a moderate reduction in intensity of t h e visible radiant energy, is required. Group I-Processes where protection from injurious radiant energy, with a large reduction in intensity of the visible radiant energy, is required. Eye H a z a r d s in the C h e m i c a l I n d u s t r y
Although some or all of these hazards may exist to a greater or less extent in certain of the many phases of the chemical industry, it is obvious that the hazard most frequently experienced in chemical operations and processes is that listed
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INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
in Group E. The injuries to the eyes most frequently resulting from these hazards are (1) burns caused by splashing acids and caustics, and (2) the injurious effects of a wide variety of poisons, such as methanol, lead, nitroglycerin, ammonia, nitrobenzene, etc. Eye P r o t e c t i o n f r o m Gases, F u m e s , a n d Liquids
The nature of the process determines to a great extent the type of protector to use. The operations are so varied that it is not deemed advisable in the National Code to prescribe in detail the type of protection. Judgment and experience must determine this. The following advice, however, is given: Goggles which do not fit the configuration of the face should not be used. In order to prevent splashing liquids from coming in contact with the eyes it is desirable to use eyecups which fit closely but which are provided with ventilating openings covered in such manner as to prevent the entrance of liquid into the eyes. The openings afford a means of escape for the vapor arising from perspiration which would otherwise condense on the lenses and obscure vision. In processes where the operator is exposed to the splashing or projection of large amounts of acids or caustics into the face, the entire face, or even the entire head, should be protected as well as the eyes. A variety of material is available for making masks and hoods for this purpose, and the design should be such that there are no openings in the mask through which chemicals might pass. When working in gases which affect the mucous membrane or skin, hoods which cover the head and neck must be used. Each process requires special attention, and therefore no detailed specification for the type of hood required can be made. Mitigation of this hazard in these processes is perhaps more in the province of the sanitary engineer and physician, since the health more than the physical safety of the operator is involved. Goggles for protecting the eyes from these processes should be provided with lenses of clear optical glass, free from any imperfections which may obstruct vision. For processes which will affect the surface of the glass either by deposits or chemical action, lenses of cellulose acetate may be used. S a f e Handling of C a u s t i c Soda a n d Acid Carboys
The Chemical Section of the National Safety Council has issued concise regulations for safely handling caustic soda and acid carboys. The preventive measures advocated should be adopted by every plant where caustics and acids are used, even though infrequently or in small quantities. The hazards resulting from the handling of caustic soda are (1) dripping and splashing] (2) vapors, (3) flying particles and dust, and (4) improper wearing apparel. The safety measures that will eliminate the causes of these hazards are briefly but adequately treated in the regulations. Preventive measures are also provided for guarding against the breaking of acid carboys and the spilling of the contents, both of which are common causes of accidents to those handling carboys. Treatment of Eye B u r n s
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Burns to the eye from acids and caustics often result in serious impairment to vision or even entire loss of sight. They demand immediate attention and the proper first-aid treatment should be provided. The acid or alkali should be washed from the eye immediately with water. This may be done by directing a moderate jet of water into the opened eyes from a small flexible hose or by plunging the head into a vessel of clean water and winking the eyes rapidly. The following first-aid treatments are recommended for chemical burns:
Vol. 19, No. 7
(1) For acid bums-acetic, hydrochloric, mixed, nitric, oxalic, picric, and sulfuric-bathe freely with water and apply a saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda. ( 2 ) For alkali burns-ammonia, caustic potash, caustic soda, and soda ash-bathe freely with water and then apply a 2 per cent solution of acetic acid. (3) .For hydrofluoric acid burns, bathe freely with water and then with dilute ammonia water. (4) For carbolic acid burns, wash at once with water, then with alcohol or a solution containing equal parts of sweet oil and limewater. (5) For hydrocyanic acid, wash with water, then with hydrogen peroxide.
Poisons Affecting t h e Eyes
This group of eye injuries is rapidly increasing in importance owing to the enormous increase in recent years in the production of dyestuffs and other chemicals and the consequent growth of the chemical industry. The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics has recently issued a comprehensive list of occupations that are hazardous to the health of workers and the diagnostic signs by which the injurious effect of the hazards may be recognized. Approximately half of the poisons listed have injurious effects upon the eyes of varying degrees of severity, such as an irritation of the mucous membrane of the eyes, exciting lachrymation or a flow of tears; conjunctivitis, an i d a m mation of the mucous membrane which lines the inside of the eyelids and covers the front part of the eyeball; a disturbance of the sense of vision; paralysis of the muscles of the eye; serious affections of the retina; atrophy of the optic nerve; permanent blindness. These poisons most frequently enter the body through the respiratory system in the form of gas, vapor, or dust. They may, however, enter by absorption through the skin, and in some instances they are carried into the body b y food that has come in contact with the poison on the hands of the worker. The more important poisons are listed below, with the effect they produce upon the eyes as enumerated in the bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. There are other symptoms and conditions produced which are not given here. Acetaldehyde causes an irritation of the .mucous membrane of the eyes. The principal workers exposed to this hazard are celluloid makers, dye makers, explosive workers, varnish makers, etc. Acrolein causes an irritation of the eyes, exciting lachrymation, and may produce conjunctivitis. The principal workers exposed are bone renderers, fat renderers, galvanizers, linoleum makers, soap makers, tinners, etc. A m m o n i a produces a redness of the eyes and affects such workers as aeetylene makers, ammonium-salt makers, artificialice makers, dye makers, gas workers, shellac makers, soda makers, sugar refiners, etc. Carbon disuljide produces a disturbance of the sense of vision and affects artificial-silk makers, celluloid makers, cementers (rubber), glue workers, match-factory workers, paint makers, smokeless powder makers, sulfur extractors, etc. Chlorade of lime causes conjunctivitis and lachrymation. Bleachers, chloride of lime workers, chloroform makers, disinfectant makers, dye makers, tannery workers, etc., are affected. Chromium comporcnds cause a n irritation of the conjunctiva and affect artificial flower makers, bleachers, enamelers, ink makers, lithographers, photographic workers, rubber workers, tannery workers, etc. Dimethyl sulfate produces lachrymation, conjunctivitis, and photophobia (extreme sensitiveness to light). Dimethylsulfate makers, dye makers, and perfume makers are exposed to this hazard. Hydrochloric acid causes conjunctivitis, and affects acid dippers, acid mixers, acid removers, aniline makers, camphor makers, dye makers, enamel makers, glue workers, picklers, sulfur chloride makers, vignetters, etc. HydroJEuoric acid causes a n intense irritation of the eyelids and conjunctiva. Antimony fluoride extractors, art-glass workers, bleachers, dyers, etchers, fertilizer makers, and glass finishers are exposed to this hazard.
July, 1927
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Lead and i t s compounds is one of the most dangerous industrial poisons, for it produces, among other things, atrophy of the optic nerve. Permanent blindness is the result of complete atrophy of the optic nerve. Furthermore, lead demands special consideration because of the wide variety of operations in which it is used and the large number of operations t h a t are exposed t o it. The complete list includes over one hundred and twenty-five operations of which the following are important: amber workers, babbitters, dry and storage battery makers, brass polishers, color makers, dye makers, galvanizers, lead burners, lead miners, lead smelters, painters and paint makers, petroleum refiners, rubber workers, zinc smelters. Nethand is probably the most deadly industrial poison, for i t not only produces such serious effects upon the retina and optic nerve t h a t total blindness almost invariably develops, but it may cause blindness if taken internally. The widespread use of methanol in many different industries adds t o the seriousness of this hazard. Occupations which offer exposure t o methanol are art-glass workers, artificial-silk makers, bronzers, celluloid makers, dimethyl sulfate makers, dye makers, felt-hat makers, gilders, incandescent-lamp makers, ink makers, japan makers, linoleum makers, perfume makers, shellac makers, soap makers methanol distillers, etc. Nitrobenzene and other nitro compounds of benzene and its homologs, such as chlorodinitrobenzene, chloronitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene, and nitronaphthalene, produce visual disturbances and affect aniline makers, dye makers, explosive workers, perfume makers, smokeless-powder makers, and soap makers. Nitroglycerin causes a paralysis of the muscles of the eyes. Explosive workers, nitroglycerin workers, and shell fillers are exposed t o this hazard. Nitrous gases and nitric acid cause a n inflammation of the eyes. Among those workers exposed to this hazard are acid mixers, acid transporters, bleachers, celluloid makers, enamelers, explosive workers, fertilizer makers, nitrates, refiners (metals), sulfuric acid workers, etc. Picric acid causes a yellow pigmentation of the conjunctiva. The workers exposed t o this hazard are dye makers, dyers, explosive workers, photographers, picric acid makers, shell fillers, and smokeless-powder makers. S u l f u r dioxide causes a n irritation of the mucous membrane of the eyes. It affects alkali-salt makers, bleachers, carbolic acid makers, copper smelters, dye makers, lead smelters, mercury smelters, petroleum refiners, storage-battery makers, sulfite cooks, sulfur burners, sulfuric acid workers, zinc smelters, etc. Sulfuretted hydrogen produces conjunctival catarrh and affects alkali-salt makers, bronzers, celluloid makers, dye makers, gas purifiers, glue workers, sodium sulfide makers, etc. T a r produces conjunctivitis and affects dry-battery makers, coke-oven workers, paint makers, petroleum refiners, coal-tar still cleaners, tar workers, etc. Trznitrotoluene causes a yellowing of t h e whites of the eyes. Explosive workers and shell fillers are exposed t o this hazard. Turpentine causes a n irritation of the mucous membrane of the eyes and affects art-glass workers, camphor makers, dye makers, enamelers, japan makers, painters and paint makers, rubber workers, shellac makers, turpentine extractors, etc.
Although not contained in the list of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, there are certain other chemical substances, which according to other authorities, may injure the eyes: Arsenic preparations, both soluble and insoluble, produce external and internal injury t o the eyes as evidenced by pain in the eyes, with itching, burning and irritation, lachrymation and photophobia, loss of vision and optic atrophy. Anililte and many of its related chemical compounds cause a n irritation of the eyes and a blurring of vision. Conjunctivitis frequently develops. Carbon bisuZfide produces a vapor which, in chronic cases, injures vision by a slowly progressing nerve atrophy. In advance cases, vision is seldom recovered. Carbon monoxide occasionally produces optic nerve and retinal disturbances. Nicotine may be absorbed through the skin of tobacco workers and cause tobacco amblyopia, a dimness of vision characteristic of this drug. I n o r g a n i c Dust
Finally there should be considered the serious health hazard from exposure to inorganic dust which causes an inflammatory condition of the eyes. A wide variety of
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occupations offer exposure t o this hazard, including many groups of workers in the chemical industry. Four effective methods are recommended to prevent the inhalation of dust generated during industrial processes. No one of these can apply to all conditions, but the particular method to be used must be adapted to the peculiarities of the process. (1) Use of water t o dampen the dust and thus prevent it from rising and filling the atmosphere. ( 2 ) Use of exhaust systems which remove the dust a t the point of origin. ( 3 ) Use of enclosing chambers in which the dust-producing processes are confined, beinn remlated from the outside. (4) Use of respirators aGd h
