Instrumentation
Pulsed Sources for Atomic Fluorescence Nicolò Omenetto Institute of Inorganic and General Chemistry University of Pavia Pa via, Italy
This article is aimed at assessing the characteristic features of pulsing the source of excitation in atomic fluorescence spectroscopy. Although there are other important parameters, both geometrical (solid angle of illumination and collection) and of more fundamental nature (quantum efficiency of the transition) which affect the fluorescence signal, our discussion will be confined to the advantageous features and limitations of using pulsed excitation sources. Pulsing Features and Signal-to-Noise Considerations In the fluorescence literature on the excitation sources, no paper fails to conclude that their major requirement is a high radiance over the absorption line width of the analyte atoms. This holds true also in the case of pulsed sources. Narrow, broad line and continuum sources have been more or less successfully used and compared, both on an experimental and theoretical basis (1). Recently, several papers have appeared on the use of the pulsed, tunable dye lasers in atomic fluorescence studies (i). The different sources of noise and their relative importance in atomic fluorescence work have been also discussed (1, 2). Although scanty information exists regarding temporal noise distribution in light sources and flames, it is generally assumed that the most important contribution to the total noise in a fluorescence setup is given by the flicker noise in the atomization system and by the total photodetector shot noise (assuming a photomultiplier is used). A possible exception which should not be overlooked is electronic noise in the amplifier readout chain, when high bandwidth systems are required. Usually, the further simplification is made that shot noise dominates over fluctuation noise and that background noise is the limiting noise in the system.
Figure 1 . Simplified s k e t c h of pulsed o p e r a t i o n of s o u r c e
In view of these considerations, the optimum fluorescence setup will rather obviously imply the combination of sources possessing a very high spectral radiance and stable, low background atomization devices. However, this condition should not be met at the expense of the spectral quality of the emitted radiation and the atomizing properties of the device used. In other words, self-absorption and self-reversal in the excitation source due to high current operation have to be avoided, and a low-temperature, low-background flame will be of limited analytical utility, being much more prone to chemical interferences than a hightemperature, high-background flame. Both drawbacks can in principle be solved by a pulsed fluorescence system. In fact, one can achieve the goal of high source radiances without deterioration of the spectral characteris-
tics of the emitted radiation by pulsing the source at very high peak radiances (high peak currents) for a given time duration and a given repetition rate. If this process is performed with a sufficient rest period between pulses (i.e., with a low duty cycle), then the average radiance (average current) of the source can be successfully maintained at a low, acceptable value. In Figure 1 is depicted a very simplified scheme showing the relationship between peak intensity and average intensity for an idealized square pulse and 100% modulation. The value of the duty cycle can be very different depending upon the type of source and pulsing circuitry: it may range from about 0.02 in the case of hollow cathode lamps to about 10~ 7 for dye lasers. On the other hand, to take the greatest advantage of pulsing the
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 48, NO. 1, JANUARY 1976 . 75 A
source and using flames with good atomization efficiencies, it is also neces sary to pulse or gate the detector, which will be "on" only during the source "on" time so that background noise (shot and fluctuation) will be greatly diminished. This can be ac complished in different ways, as will be seen later. Assuming that the spectral distribu tion of the source is not modified by pulsing and that the fluorescence sig nal is linearly proportional to the source radiance, Omenetto et al. (3) have shown that the gain in signal-tonoise ratio due to pulsed operation (po) as compared to continuous opera tion (cw) is given by the following ex pression: Φρ,,/cw = (B^/jBL-e)(l/(/Îp) 1/2 ) = (BUJBl^Kftp)112 *po/cw=(B^e/S^)
,/2
(1) d')
where Blve and BlfL, represent the average source radiances for the continuous and pulsed operation, respectively, jBpcak is the peak radiance of the source, and ftp is the duty cycle (see also Figure 1). Equation 1 holds for background shot noise limited systems, and Equation 1' results when the system is source-carried shot noise limited (fluorescence or scatter). One can therefore see that pulsing may be very advantageous with gated detection, and the gain obtained is inversely proportional to the square root of the duty cycle. However, as indicated in Equation 1, peak power and duty cycle are inversely related to each other so that their maximum values are limited by the necessity of maintaining an acceptable power dissipation in the source. It is worth stressing again that these considerations only hold if the fluorescence intensity does follow the source intensity, i.e., if the spectral distribution of the exciting source is not plagued by the onset, during the pulse, of phenomena such as self-absorption or self-reversal. If this happens, the predicted advantage of pulsing may be easily ruled out. It is therefore important to measure experimentally the line width in pulsed operation as compared to cw operation. Little is gained by the usual procedure of measuring wavelength integrated line intensities with a monochromator to see the increase in intensity vs. the discharge current. Finally, in resonance fluorescence work, pulsing the source and gating the detector will be useless if scattering problems with the atomization system are significant (Equation 1'). Pulsed Sources
For the characterization of optical waveforms, electrical sparks between
metal electrodes in pressurized gases have been widely used with pulse waveforms in the nanosecond range. Also, fast electrooptical shutters (Kerr cells, Pockel cells, etc.) can be used to obtain pulses with 10-nsec duration or less from steady light sources (4). A high-intensity, low-duty cycle spark discharge which might prove quite useful for exciting atomic fluorescence has been described (5). So far, analytical fluorescence studies have been performed with hollow cathode lamps, spectral continua, and tunable dye lasers. To the author's knowledge, no experiments have been reported on the use of electrodeless discharge lamps in the pulsed mode, even though these sources have been shown to be the most efficient conventional excitation sources in atomic fluorescence. Pulsed Hollow Cathode Lamps. The usefulness of these sources, already known in emission spectroscopy (6), has been reported in atomic ab-
level of several tens of milliamperes (70). A detailed study of the characteristic performances of commercial lamps operated in an intermittent mode was published by Cordos and Malmstadt {11). The sequential operation of the source allowed rapid multielement determination by atomic fluorescence (12), first described by Mitchell and Johannson (13). Computer-controlled, pulsed hollow cathode lamps have been recently used in a multielement approach, which operates by time division multiplexing (14). As stated before, the quality of the lines emitted is important, and even if a gain of 50 to more than one hundredfold in the wavelength integrated intensity of the resonance lines has been observed, the width of the lines might be greatly different from that obtained in conventional cw operation. This is clearly borne out experimentally by the results of Human (15) who determined the signal-to-noise
Figure 2. Oversimplified diagram of typical flash lamp circuit
sorption by Dawson and Ellis (7) and subsequently by a number of authors (8, 9). Several commercial sealed-off lamps have been operated in the pulsed mode for atomic fluorescence studies. Typical values of peak current during the pulse range from 200 to 900 mA, pulse widths from 15 to several hundred microseconds, and repetition rates from 25 to several hundred hertz. The pulsed power supply, similar to that described by Dawson and Ellis (7), basically consists of a square wave pulse generator, pulse delay, and pulse width circuits to supply both driver pulses of variable frequency and width for the control of the power amplifier feeding the lamp and gating pulses of variable delay and width to the detector. Results have been reported also for demountable-type lamps, although with rather low values of peak pulse currents (less than 200 mA) superimposed to a constant DC
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1976
ratio for the fluorescence of copper and calcium. The fluorescence signal did not remain proportional to the source intensity, and instead of a ninetyfold increase from 30 to 900 mA, a value of only 16 was observed for copper. A more spectacular result has been obtained for copper and silver lamps operated in a somewhat similar mode by De Jong and Piepmeier (16). In their work on time resolved studies of atomic emission line profiles with a Fabry-Perot interferometer, the copper doublet was strongly self-reversed after the first 21 /usee of a 5-msec pulse, even though the wavelength integrated intensity increased linearly with the pulse current. The silver lamp showed extreme self-reversal even during the first 21 μββο. Under standably, there is a compromise to be reached between peak current and line width which depends on the particular combination of cathode material and
filler gas. Even when using a multipleelement lamp, the resonance line in tensities for different elements do not increase in the same way (11). A new type of pulsed arc-glow hol low cathode lamp would seem to be worthy of further investigation be cause of the improved line shape and greater intensity as compared to a conventional lamp (17). Pulsed Continuum Sources. The stringent demand for maximum pumping efficiency for the develop ment of flash lamp pumped, tunable dye lasers has resulted in a consider able technological effort directed to improve the operating characteristics of these sources. Therefore, the inno vations likely to appear in the design and output performances of flash lamps might be greatly beneficial for atomic fluorescence purposes. A flash lamp is essentially an arcchamber made of glass or quartz with each end having an electrode sealed to it. The basic flashtube circuit (Figure 2) consists of a high-voltage DC power supply, a charging resistance, an ener gy storage capacitor, and a high-volt age trigger pulse circuit. The capacitor is charged at the operating voltage, maintained below the self-flash lamp voltage so that the lamp operates only when triggered (18). The trigger cir cuit, consisting usually of a simple step-up transformer, pulsed from the discharge of a small capacitor by con tacts or a thyratron switch, produces the high-voltage trigger pulse which ionizes the gas in the chamber. Several typical electrical parameters are col lected in Table I, derived from Winefordner et al. (18). Of primary impor tance is the radiative efficiency of the lamp, which could be defined as the ratio of the optical energy emitted in the entire spectrum to the electrical energy delivered by the capacitor to the lamp. Values of approximately 50% can be achieved with xenon, and the radiative efficiency increases by increasing the peak current density. The spectral distribution of the radia tion emitted depends upon the cur rent density and the pulse duration: short pulses and high current densities shift the spectral output toward the ultraviolet region (18, 19). A great va riety of lamp geometries (linear, min iature and capillary types, annular, helical, pi-shaped) are available, but the best arrangement for fluorescence would be given by short arcs or essen tially point sources. Due to the high pressure in the arc discharge, an effi cient lamp housing is mandatory. One serious drawback of flash lamps is their limited lifetime, typically 10e shots, extending up to 108 shots using properly designed circuits. A pulsed ultraviolet source developed to excite the fluorescence of SO2 has been re
ported to have a lifetime in excess of 10,000 hr (20). Pulse durations nor mally range from several nanoseconds to hundreds of microseconds with peak powers up in the megawatt range. Repetition rates are usually below 100 Hz. Manufacturers of flash lamps worthy of investigation in atomic fluorescence include Xenon Corp. (Medford, Mass., especially with the Novatron series), EG&G (Boston, Mass.), and ILC Technology (Sunny vale, Calif.). A low-pressure, capillary-type xenon arc lamp has been recently in vestigated in atomic fluorescence work (21 ) . The lamp was operated from a pulsed power supply at 7 kV with a 0.1 -MF capacitor, giving a flash half width of approximately 6 μββα There fore (Table I), the flash input energy
Table I. Electrical Characteristics of Flash Lamps'* Energy input per flash, J Light flash duration, sec Peak input power, W Average input electrical power, W Average current drawn from DC power supply, mA
J={1/2)CV tf =
(l/2)RfC
P,· = J/tf P,· = Jf = Piflf Τ = VCf
"C = value of storage capacitor, μΡ; V = operating voltage, k V ; Rf = effective arc resistance during the flash, Ω; and f = flash repetition rate, sec - 1 . The value of the charging resistor should be chosen so that R = 1/5 fC, and its power rating should be greater than Pj. The value of f should never exceed about 0.1 (tf)'1 to prevent continuous ioniza tion of the lamp.
was 2.5 J with an average input power of 250 W (100 Hz repetition rate). No data on the radiative output energy, as well as on its spectral distribution, were reported. However, the detection limits obtained were poorer compared to an Eimac 150-W cw xenon source. This experimental evidence is rather disappointing, but no detailed investi gations have been made to explain these unexpected results, although geometrical considerations on input fluxes on the flame seemed to play a significant role (21). Pulsed Tunable Dye Lasers. Ex tended tunability, high peak power, narrow bandwidth, and high beam collimation are important attributes of tunable dye lasers for atomic fluores cence work. Since the first papers ap peared on laser excited atomic fluores cence, considerable progress has been
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made in this field (7). Pulsed dye la sers can be pumped by another laser or by a flash lamp. Interchanging of dye solution allows operation in the near UV-near IR range, extending with frequency doubling down to 250 nm. High peak power and low duty cycle would seem to permit full exploi tation of the advantages of gated de tection, as indicated in Equation 1. Again, different types of noise might be predominant in laser excited fluorescence. Signal-carried scattering noise is the most important whenever it is impossible to take advantage of nonresonance fluorescence emission (22). Peak-to-peak fluctuations of the laser output should have no influence on the fluorescence signal, provided that its spectral irradiance is (much) higher than the saturation irradiance, which depends upon the lifetime of the atomic system (i.e., on the quan tum efficiency of the transition). In fact, it is well known that a high radia tion density is able to redistribute the population of the levels, causing the bleaching of the ground state. This would have remarkable consequences in improving the linearity of the ana lytical curves, provided that the bend ing observed at low light levels (i.e., with conventional excitation sources) can be attributed solely to self-absorp tion effects (23). Even more attractive is the possibility of fully exploiting the atomization characteristics of hightemperature, low-quantum efficiency mixtures, such as nitrous oxide-acety lene flames because of the less strin gent dependence, for a two-level atomic system, on the quantum effi ciency in near saturation conditions (24). Bandwidths of the laser output, usually ranging from a few tenths of a nanometer to 1 0 - 2 nm with only the use of the dispersive element in the cavity, can be interferometrically nar rowed down to 10~4 nm and even less, thereby allowing high-resolution spec troscopy studies. Also, the high collimation of the beam leads to very high irradiances even with moderate power, owing to the fact that the focal spot diameter of the laser can be approxi mated by the product of the beam di vergence times the focal length of the lens used to focus it into the atomic vapor. Some typical operating characteris tic parameters of flash lamps and laser pumped dye lasers are summarized in Table II. This table is only intended to give an overall survey of some typical values which can be achieved with pulsed tunable lasers and does not represent ultimate performances. Measuring System
Detection systems reported for pulsed fluorescence work have been
photomultipliers coupled with either a sampling oscilloscope or some form of boxcar integration schemes. The problems of measuring fast optical signals have been exhaustively discussed in two excellent papers by Lytle (25); therefore, we shall limit our discussion to a brief illustration of the widely used detection scheme involving a boxcar, which is analogous to a sampling oscilloscope with added flexibility of signal processing. Commercially available boxcars can be used either as a waveform retrieval system, also called "scan mode" of operation, or as a pulse measurement system, also called "single point" mode of operation (26). Basically, the boxcar is a sample and hold system, the sampling time of which is determined by a reference pulse related to the signal of interest. If one uses it in waveform retrieval applications, then the timing of the sampling window is slowly swept across the signal of interest, producing at the output a lengthened replica of the input waveform (Figure 3). For pulse measurement purposes, the instrument is arranged in such a way that the timing and width of the sampling window coincide with the signal pulse (Figure 4). In this last mode of operation, the boxcar bears a close resemblance to the phase sensitive amplifier (lock-in detector). However, the phase sensitive detector is always gated at half-cycle intervals, whereas the boxcar is gated so that it samples only the signal pulse (and noise) occurring during the sampling time. A dual-channel boxcar integrator has been used to monitor separately any background emission between pulses (10). Similarly, a dual-channel synchronous integrator, which could be quickly patched together from standard functional cards and modules, was described (27). Here, the difference between the two integrated values of signal plus background and background alone gives the net fluorescence signal, assuming that the background emission during the OFF time of the source is equal to that measured during the ON time (i.e., in absence of any source-induced background signal). The corresponding digital synchronous photon counting system was used with a pulsed xenon lamp as excitation source. In this case, considerable RF interference was found from the high-voltage pulse to start the lamp; therefore, a delay in the gate opening (causing a loss of fluorescent signal) was necessary (21).
Table I I . Spectral Output Characteristics (Typical Val ues) of T u n a b l e Dye Lasers P u m p i n g mode
N , -laser, 3 3 7 . Ï nrrï Rubv-SH, : 3 4 7 . 1 nm Flash lamp, ~50-nsec rise ! time Flash lamp, — 200- η sec rise-
Peak p o w e r ; W
Pulse w i d t h , nsec
Repetition rate, Hz
Duty cycle
Bandwidth," cm-1
104-105
3il0:
10-500
