Recent Progress in Design of Protein-Based Fluorescent Biosensors

Oct 15, 2014 - In this review, we survey the recent studies in the development and improvement of protein-based fluorescent biosensors and highlight t...
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Review

Recent progress in design of protein-based fluorescent biosensors and their cellular applications Tomonori Tamura, and Itaru Hamachi ACS Chem. Biol., Just Accepted Manuscript • Publication Date (Web): 15 Oct 2014 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on October 16, 2014

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ACS Chemical biology

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Review: Recent progress in design of protein-based

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fluorescent biosensors and their cellular applications

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4 Tomonori Tamura1and Itaru Hamachi1,2*

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Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto

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University, Katsura, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan. 2

Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency, 5 Sanbancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0075, Japan.

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Email: [email protected]

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*Corresponding author: Itaru Hamachi, Kyoto University, Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto

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615-8510, Japan. Tel: 075-383-2757; Fax: 075-383-2759; Email: [email protected]

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ACS Chemical Biology

ABSTRACT

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Protein-based fluorescent biosensors have emerged as key bio-analytical tools to visualize and

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quantify a wide range of biological substances and events in vitro, in cells, and even in vivo. On the

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basis of the construction method, the protein-based fluorescent biosensors can be principally classified

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into two classes: 1) genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors harnessing fluorescent proteins (FPs),

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and 2) semisynthetic biosensors comprised of protein scaffolds and synthetic fluorophores. Recent

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advances in protein engineering and chemical biology not only allowed the further optimization of

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conventional biosensors, but also facilitated the creation of novel biosensors based on unique strategies.

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In this review, we survey the recent studies in the development and improvement of protein-based

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fluorescent biosensors, and highlight the successful applications to live cell and in vivo imaging.

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Furthermore, we provide perspectives on possible future directions of the technique.

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MAIN TEXT

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1. Introduction

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The last two decades have witnessed tremendous progress in fluorescent biosensors that are defined

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as integrated biomolecules (typically nucleic acids or proteins) capable of reporting a molecular

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recognition event as a fluorescent signal.1 In particular, protein-based fluorescent biosensors have

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revolutionized many areas of biological science because they allow imaging and quantitative

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measurement of specific biomolecules and events in cells, as well as in vitro.1-7 The biosensor generally

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consists of a protein scaffold as a recognition module for the target analyte and a fluorescent transducer

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to convert the interaction between the protein and the analyte into a fluorescent signal change in its

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intensity or wavelength. Compared to other biomolecules, the excellent ability to recognize various

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biologically relevant molecules with high specificity and affinity is one of the major advantages in

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proteins, which permits the construction of robust biosensors toward targets of high diversity. In

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addition, protein-based biosensors are now considered as powerful platforms for high-throughput

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screening (HTS) for drug candidates using pharmacologically attractive proteins as a recognition

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module.8,9

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Protein-based fluorescent biosensors can be divided into two classes depending on the type of

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fluorescent transducers: 5,6 1) genetically encodable fluorescent biosensors utilizing fluorescent proteins

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(FPs), 2) semisynthetic fluorescent biosensors that are constructed by site-specific chemical

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modification of protein scaffold with a synthetic fluorescent dye. In both classes, the creation of a novel

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fluorescent biosensor for a given target is still not straightforward due to the lack of general design

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principles to transduce an analyte-binding process into a fluorescent signal change. Nevertheless,

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increasing demands for live-cell imaging have driven researchers to develop a variety of new strategies

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for the sensor design and optimization. Such efforts provide not only unprecedented tools to elucidate

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biological systems, but also a deep insight into the future design guidelines to create biosensors more

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rationally. In this review, we briefly outline the latest design strategies for the development and

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improvement of protein-based fluorescent biosensors, and describe successful examples in their cellular

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applications.

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2. Genetically encoded fluorescent protein (FP)-based biosensors Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its homologues are most commonly used to

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visualize spatiotemporal information and dynamics of a protein of interest in live cells.3,13-15 Since the

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first discovery and cloning, the GFP family have been engineered to produce a variety of colorful

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mutants ranging from blue to red.16-18 Such rich variants expanded available strategies to be used for

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creating genetically encoded FP-based biosensors capable of imaging and quantifying more complex

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events in living cells with high spatial and temporal resolution. More recently, several FPs composed of

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protein scaffolds other than GFP derivatives, such as bacterial phytochromes19-22, rhodopsins23, and

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fatty-acid-binding protein (FABP) family24, have been adopted to biosensors construction. These new

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type of FPs with unique chemical, spectral, and biological properties are now providing the further

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diversity and flexibility of biosensor design strategies.

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FP-based biosensors have several advantages compared to synthetic dye-based biosensors.10,11 First,

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FP-based biosensors are genetically encodable, allowing the easy incorporation by transfection into cells

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where they are produced by the endogenous cellular transcriptional and translational machinery.

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Secondly, the sensors can be selectively localized to subcellular organelles by fusing specific signal

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sequences to the N- or C-terminus of the FP sensor. Finally, the concentration of sensor can be

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controlled by putting it under control of a chemically inducible promoter.

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In this section, we describe the recent strategies for construction of fluorescent biosensors relying on

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GFP-like proteins and non-GFP scaffolds. The vast number of biosensors using GFP-like proteins are

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further classified into three sub-categories4-6; 1) Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based

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biosensors, 2) single FP-based biosensors, 3) bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC)-based

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biosensors. Although genetically encoded bioluminescent-based sensors are also powerful especially for

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applications in tissues and animals, the scope of this review focused on only fluorescent-based ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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biosensors owing to limitation of space. More comprehensive information on fluorescent and

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bioluminescent protein-based biosensors is available in other excellent reviews.1,7,25

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2-1. FRET-based FP sensors

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FRET is a phenomenon of non-radiative energy transfer from a donor fluorophore in its excited state

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to an accepter fluorophore, which only occurs when the two fluorophores are in proximity (1-10 nm) of

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each other, and the emission spectrum of the donor overlaps with the excitation spectrum of the

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acceptor.1,2 FRET-based sensors generally consist of a recognition module and two FPs. The currently

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preferred FRET pair of FPs is cyan FP (CFP) and yellow FP (YFP) couple.26 Thanks to the

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improvement of red-FP (RFP), red-shifted FRET pairs are also utilized, together with the conventional

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CFP/YFP pair to image multiple signaling networks.26-29

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In FRET-based biosensors, the analyte-induced conformational changes can be transduced into a

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ratiometric fluorescent change through a substantial modulation of FRET efficiency between donor and

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acceptor FPs. Some of the most effective design formats are schematically represented in Figure 1a-d.

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These have been proven to be useful for generating FRET-based biosensor for various intracellular

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molecules and events (e.g. enzymes activity, metal ions, chemicals, post-translational modifications,

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protein-protein interactions (PPIs)).1-7,10-12 However, even after the iterative optimization, the signal

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change is small to moderate, in many cases, mainly due to the structural flexibility of the sensor that

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generally requires a long flexible linker for proper folding of each domain.11,12,30

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To sidestep this problem, Merkx and coworkers recently developed a rational strategy for

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construction FRET sensors using self-associating FP variants.31 The group discovered that a S208F

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mutation on both ECFP and EYFP leads to a weak hydrophobic interaction between the FRET pair, and

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a V224L mutation enhances the FRET efficiency (Figure 1e, f). The self-associating ECFP/EYFP pair

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was adapted to the CALWY (CFP-Atox1-Linker-WD4-YFP) sensor for Zn2+, previously reported by the

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same group.32 Although the original sensor had suffered from a small change in emission ratio (dynamic

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range of 21%), the introduction of the S208F/V224L mutations displayed 6-fold improvements in the

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dynamic range. Moreover, this group expanded the self-associating FP strategy to a mOrange/mCherry

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FRET pair.33 The red-shifted “sticky” FRET pair allowed the simultaneous use of spectrally orthogonal

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CALWY sensors to visualize Zn2+ over a broad concentration range in the same cellular compartment.

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This sticky FP strategy has also been employed in FRET sensors to detect protease34, bile acid35, and

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antibodies36. In an analogous manner, Serrano and coworkers reported that the introduction of

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peptide-domain helper module into the intermolecular FRET sensor as a secondary interaction pair

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could enhance its FRET efficiency.37 Given these successful examples, it is likely that the design

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concept based on a subtle interaction between two FP domains can be a generic strategy for constructing

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robust FRET-based biosensors.

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2-2 Single FP-based sensors It is known that the spectral properties of GFP derivatives are affected by the surrounding molecular

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environment of a FP’s chromophore (e.g. pH or local conformational change). This intrinsic feature of

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FPs has been utilized to develop single FP-based biosensor responding to pH38,39, halide anions40 and

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redox.41,42 To target a broader range of analytes, an extrinsic recognition domain can be inserted into

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FPs.43 Upon interacting the analyte, the recognition domain undergoes a conformational change, which

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causes a local conformation change of the FP, resulting in a change in its fluorescent parameters.4,10

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Circularly permutated FPs (cpFPs) facilitates the development of more sensitive single FP sensors.

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cpFPs were constructed by connecting original N and C termini by a short peptide linker and

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regenerating the novel N and C termini at a specific position.44 One representative example of this

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approach is a G-CaMP sensor for Ca2+, which has a M13 peptide and a calmodulin fused to the N- and

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C-termini of a cpEGFP, respectively.45 The G-CaMP has been continuously remodeled to improve

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fluorescent sensitivity and expand the color palette for multicolor imaging of Ca2+ in different organelles,

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such as cytosol, nucleus and mitochondria, of a single cell.46, 47

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A novel strategy to rationally generate single FP sensors has been emerging, which is based on the

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incorporation of unnatural amino acids (UAAs) into a natural chromophore-forming Tyr66 residue of

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FPs through genetic code expansion methods (Figure 2a).48-53 For example, Yun and coworkers

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replaced all tyrosine residues in the GFP with metal-chelating L-DOPA. The GFP-dopa mutant

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functioned as a selective Cu2+ sensor over other metal ions.49 Wang’s group site-specifically

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incorporated a metal binding amino acid, HqAla (2-amino-3-(8-hydroxyquinolin-5-yl)propanoic acid),

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into the Tyr66 of a cpsfGFP variant.50 This construct exhibited a significant (7.2-fold) fluorescence

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increase by Zn2+ in living E coli cells. Chemically reactive-UAAs can also be incorporated to the

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chromophore to generate reaction-based FP sensors. Schultz and coworkers demonstrated a H2O2

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sensitive FP sensor (UFP-Tyr66pBoPhe) by the replacement of Tyr66 of GFP to

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p-borono-L-phenylalanine (pBoPhe) having an arylboronate side chain.51 In the absence of H2O2, this

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sensor doesn’t show fluorescence because the vacant 2p orbital of boron readily accepts electrons to

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make the chromophore more electron-deficient. Upon H2O2 oxidation, pBoPhe is converted to the

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original tyrosine residue, and the fluorescence was recovered. Whereas most reported UAA-based

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biosensors have been limited to use in vitro or in E. coli, it has recently become possible to construct

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them in mammalian cells. Ai’s group developed UAA-based H2S sensor in which Tyr66 was replaced

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with p-azido-L-phenylalanine (pAzF).52 The azide-modified chromophore was selectively reduced by

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H2S, resulting in sensitive fluorescence enhancement. The sensor was successfully expressed in

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mammalian cells by using orthogonal tRNA/aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pairs, and responded to H2S

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within ~7 min after the addition of 50 µM of NaHS. The Ai group has also developed a UAA-based

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sensor for peroxynitrite, which represents the first genetically encoded peroxynitrite probe that can be

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used in mammalian cells.53 Although UAA-based FP sensors are still in their infancy and have some

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limitations in their reversibility and responsibility, this strategy is expected to provide further structural

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and functional diversity of single FP-based sensors.

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2-3. BiFC sensor In the conventional design of BiFC sensors, a FP is split into two fragments, and fused to

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recognition domains that associate in the presence of an analyte of interest. The two halves of the FP do

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not emit fluorescence in the state of dissociation. Upon the analyte-induced interaction of the

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recognition domains, the complementary fragments of the FP are brought into close proximity and

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reconstitute the β-barrel structure of the FP, resulting in the recovery of the fluorescence signal.54 In

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general, the split FP strategy have a much lower background so that it may give a greater dynamic range

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than those of FRET and single FP sensors. On the other hand, a major drawback in split FPs is its

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irreversibility. While irreversibility provides a significant advantage for detecting transient and/or weak

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interaction, it is unsuitable for analyzing dynamics of a specific analyte. 55,56

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Campbell

and

coworkers

recently

developed

an

alternative

BiFC

sensors

based

on

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dimerization-dependent FPs (ddFPs), which allows reversible fluorescence change by FPs

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complementation (Figure 2b).57 The group focused on the oligomeric property of RFPs that helps

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stabilize the chromophore in a brightly fluorescent state. In the first study, a RFP heterodimer

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(ddRFP-A1B1) derived from Discosoma red FP (DsRed) was generated by library screening strategy.

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The ddRFP exhibited weak fluorescence in the dissociation state, but was 10-fold brighter upon

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heterodimer formation with a Kd of 33 µM. This fluorogenic property of ddRFP was utilized to create

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red intensiometric biosensors, including detection of PPIs, Ca2+ dynamics and protease. This group

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subsequently expanded the color palette of ddFPs by developing ddGFP and ddYFP.58 These constructs

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improved in the brightness and contrast, which allowed imaging of endomembrane proximity between

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endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, termed mitochondria-associated membrane. These successful

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examples demonstrated that the ddFP strategy could be promising for novel design format of BiFC

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biosensors.

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2-4. Biosensors based on non-GFP protein scaffolds

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One of the most remarkable advances in recent FP-based biosensors represents the discovery and

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usage of non-GFP types of FPs as a fluorescent transducer, which exhibit characteristic fluorescent

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spectra and emission mechanism distinct from GFP-like proteins. For example, near-infrared (NIR) FPs,

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such as IFP1.419 and iRFP20, have been engineered from bacteriophytochromes, and these proteins

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require biliverdin for chromophore formation.19, 20 Taking advantage of the intrinsic Hg2+ sensitivity of

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IFP1.4, NIR Hg2+ sensor was developed.59 Verkhusha and coworkers exploited a NIR-BiFC reporter

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made of iRFP for detecting PPIs in whole mammals.60 In this work, iRFP was divided into two distinct

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domains, PAS and GAF, and were fused with FRB and FKBP respectively. The rapamycin-induced

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PPIs resulted in a 35-fold fluorescent increase in the HeLa cell. The high penetrability and

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low-background signal of the NIR fluorescence enabled high-contrast visualization of PPIs even in

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living mice. While this iRFP-based BiFC sensor is irreversible, Michnick and coworkers have

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successfully constructed a reversible split BiFC system based on IFP1.4.61 The reversibility was

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demonstrated by spatiotemporal analysis of hormone-induced signaling complexes in living yeast and

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mammalian cells.

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Bacterial and archaeal rhodopsins that have a retinal as a chromophore were engineered for voltage

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sensors.62, 63 This sensing mechanism is dependent on protonation states of the Schiff base, which links

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the retinal to the protein core. A change in membrane potential could alter the local electrochemical

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potential of the proton at the Shiff base, affecting the acid-base equilibrium and inducing rhodopsin’s

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spectral shift. The latest version of the rhodopsin-based voltage sensor is FRET-opsins, in which L.

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maculans rhodopsin is fused with bright GFP-like proteins, such as mCitrine and mOrange2.64 The ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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FRET-opsin sensors enabled the visualizing of neural spiking in brain tissue with high brightness and

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fidelity.

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Another new class of FPs was recently discovered by Miyawaki’s group. They identified and

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isolated a ligand-inducible fluorescent protein from Japanese eel, called UnaG, belonging to the

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fatty-acid-binding protein (FABP) family.24 UnaG exhibited a green fluorescence upon noncovalent,

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strong binding to bilirubin. This feature allowed developing a fluorogenic biosensor for quantifying

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bilirubin from human clinical samples.

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3. Semisynthetic fluorescent biosensors.

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An alternative powerful methodology to create protein-based fluorescent biosensors relies on the

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site-specific chemical modification of a protein framework with synthetic fluorophores. Compared to

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the genetically encoded FP based sensors, such semisynthetic biosensors have three advantages5: 1) the

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smaller fluorophore size should lead to minimum perturbations to the structure and function of the

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protein scaffold, 2) the flexibility to use a wide repertoire of fluorophores with diverse properties, such

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as fluorescence wavelength, brightness, stability against photo-bleaching, microenvironment (e.g. pH,

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solvent polarity) sensitivity, 3) synthetic fluorophores can be incorporated at much more positions in the

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receptor protein.

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Traditionally, semisynthetic biosensors have been constructed in vitro, and introduced into a live

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cell by invasive methods such as microinjection or electroporation, which is likely to cause cell

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damage.65,66 However, with the advent of bioorthogonal reactions and selective protein labeling methods,

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it is now becoming feasible to directly construct semisynthetic biosensors in situ.67-74 In this section, a

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variety of chemical strategies to create semisynthetic biosensors are described.

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3-1. A site-specific modification by genetically incorporated reactive handles

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The nucleophilic thiol of cysteine has often been used as a reactive handle for the site-specific

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modification of proteins with thiol-selective electrophiles, such as maleimides and α-halocarbonyl

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compounds.72,75 The analyte-binding events can be transduced onto a fluorescent change by installing an

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environment-sensitive dye into a protein scaffold at a specific site where conformational or

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microenvironmental changes take place.76,77

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Recently, Rauh and coworkers have established a new HTS system for kinase inhibitors using

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fluorophore-kinase conjugates.9,78 In the earlier study, acrylodan modification of a cysteine in a critical

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regulatory loop region of cSrc kinase enabled development of a direct binding assay for identifying and

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characterizing small-molecule inhibitors that specifically stabilize the inactive form of the kinase. The

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group subsequently improved this system by using red-shift fluorophores to avoid intrinsic inhibitor

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fluorescence that may cause false-positive and –negative results.79 This strategy was extended to

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phosphatases, allowing a HTS assay for ligands of the allosteric pocket of protein tyrosine phosphatase

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1B.80

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Specific PPIs in living cells can be monitored by environment-sensitive fluorophores located within

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or near an interaction interface.81 Recently, Hahn and coworkers have developed a semisynthetic

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biosensor based on a monobody scaffold that can be tailored to bind different targets via HTS assay

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(Figure 3a).82 In this strategy, a library of fibronectin monobodies was screened to find an appropriate

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monobody with the appropriate binding selectivity and affinity for the activated, open form of SH3

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domain of Src-family kinase (SFK). The selected monobody was fused to an environment-sensitive

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fluorophore and an internal standard FP in vitro. Upon binding to the activated SFK, the biosensor

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altered the fluorescence from the environment-sensitive dye. The resulting fluorescence ratio provided a

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quantitative measure of the kinase activity in a live cell microinjected with the sensor. This HTS-based

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method would be powerful for constructing biosensors when no suitable affinity reagents are known.

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Bioorthogonal reactive handles other than mutant Cys can be incorporated into a protein framework

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in the form of UAAs using the expanded genetic code method.83-85 Recently, Chen and coworkers

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introduced an azidocyclopentyl lysine at various sites of the pH-responsive HdeA protein, and labeled

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with an alkyne-functionalized 4-DMN (4-N,N-dimethylamino-1,8-naphthalimide) by copper-catalyzed

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azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC), or “click chemistry”, in E. coli and on mammalian cell surface

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(Figure 3b).86 The pH-induced conformational change of HdeA was transduced into an increase in

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fluorescence. This HdeA-based biosensor represents the first genetically encoded pH indicator that can

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sustain the extremely low pH (pH 7 to 2) that bacterial or mammalian cells might encounter under

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stressful conditions or during pathogenesis.

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3-2. Peptide/Protein-tag based biosensor

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As mentioned above, FRET-based sensors are the most ideal for cellular applications, because they

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give a ratiometric signal. However, these sensors strongly rely on a conformational change of a protein

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upon ligand binding, which severely limits the choice of proteins available for the development of new

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FRET biosensors. Furthermore, since the binding-induced conformational change is usually small, a

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careful optimization is frequently needed to obtain a satisfactory dynamic range.

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To circumvent such shortcomings, a new class of rationally designed semisynthetic fluorescent sensor,

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called Snifits (SNAP tag-based indicator proteins with a fluorescent intramolecular tether), has recently

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been developed by Johnsson and coworkers.87,88 Snifits exploits the SNAP- and CLIP-tag technologies

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developed by the same group, which can be specifically and covalently labeled with O6-benzylguanine

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(BG) and O2-benzylcytosine (BC) derivatives, respectively (Figure 4a). Snifits are comprised of 1)

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SNAP-tag, 2) CLIP-tag (or FPs), 3) an analyte-binding protein. SNAP-tag is specifically modified with ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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a synthetic molecule containing both a fluorophore and an affinity ligand of the analyte-binding protein

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(Figure 4b). CLIP-tag is labeled with a fluorophore that forms a good FRET pair with the fluorophore

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attached to SNAP-tag. In the absence of analyte, the Snifit is in a closed conformation through the

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intramolecular ligand binding, whereas in the presence of analyte the equilibrium is shifted towards an

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open conformation in a competitive binding with the intermolecular ligand (analyte). Such a switch in

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the relative position of two fluorophores causes a FRET change.

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As a proof-of-principle, the group employed human carbonic anhydrase (HCA) as the binding protein

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and benzenesulfonamide as the ligand.87 The sensors, Cy5-SNAP_DY547-CLIP_HCA, ratiometically

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sensed HCA inhibitors and Zn2+. In the next study, the group demonstrated that the sensing kinetics

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could be tuned by choosing an appropriate intramolecular ligand.67 The rational optimization of the

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sensor by the insertion of rigid polyproline linkers allowed an improvement of the sensor’s dynamic

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range from 1.8 to 4.9 in vitro. Furthermore, the optimized sensor was successfully constructed as a

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fusion to a transmembrane anchor on HEK293T cells, and displayed the maximum ratio change of 3.3

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upon the ligand binding. More recently, this strategy was expanded to the on-cell sensing of

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neurotransmitters, including glutamate68, gamma-aminobutyric acid69 and acetylcholine70. These

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achievements have proven the potential generality of Snifits as a rational design strategy for

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constructing semisynthetic biosensors.

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3-4. Traceless affinity-based labeling Almost all the existing strategies for the construction of fluorescent biosensors strongly depend on

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the technologies of genetic manipulation. Although such approaches are undoubtedly powerful, they

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require the exogenous gene expression or the microinjection of recombinant proteins assembled in vitro,

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which perturbs the physiological condition of cells. It is no doubt that the direct conversion of

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endogenous proteins into semisynthetic fluorescent biosensors in their native habitat is one of the most

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preferable approaches.

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Toward this end, we focused on an affinity-based protein labeling that offers a highly site-specific

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and selective protein modification with synthetic probes consisting of a protein ligand and a reactive

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group. In this approach, the ligand selectively binds to the target protein, driving a chemical reaction of

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the reactive group with an amino acid located at the vicinity of the ligand-binding pocket through the

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proximity effect.71,72 A crucial shortcoming, however, is that the labeled product impairs the protein’s

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function due to the covalent attachment of the ligand, which permanently occupies the active site.89,90

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A significant breakthrough was achieved by connecting an affinity ligand and a probe through a

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cleavable phenylsulfonate ester (tosyl) group. In the ligand-directed tosyl (LDT) chemistry, the surface

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of the target protein can be specifically labeled by an SN2-type reaction with the concurrent release of

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the ligand molecule, so that the labeled protein retains its native function (Figure 5a).73,91,92 By the

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combined use of the LDT chemistry with FP-tag technologies, we recently visualized a

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rapamycin-mediated complexation of endogenous FKBP12 (eFKBP12) and FRB inside of living cells.96

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Intracellular eFKBP12 was selectively labeled with oregon green (OG) fluorophore by LDT chemistry.

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The rapamycin-induced interaction of the OG-modified eFKBP12 and FP-tagged FRB in living cells

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could be monitored through intermolecular FRET signal.

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We have also developed affinity-guided 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) catalysts, termed AGD

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chemistry, that facilitate the specific chemical acylation of proteins with fluorophore-appended

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thiophenyl ester as an acyl donor.94,95 In the recent study, we demonstrated the selective labeling of

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bradykinin B2 receptor (B2R), a G-protein coupled receptor, on live cell surfaces.96 The

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fluorescein-labeled B2R can act as a turn-on fluorescent biosensor for various antagonist candidates

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using a bimolecular fluorescence quenching and recovery (BFQR) system on the live-cell surfaces

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(Figure 5b).

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Despite its high target-selectivity and biocompatibility, the LDT chemistry suffered from its slow reaction rate and low labeling efficiency in some situation. The AGD chemistry showed excellent ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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reaction kinetics, but nonspecific labeling derived from the non-catalytic acylation of proteins by the

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acyl donors caused high-background signals in live-cell imaging. These problems motivated us to

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develop a ligand-directed acyl imidazole (LDAI) chemistry (Figure 5a).74,97,98 The moderately reactive

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acyl imidazole allowed the selective and rapid modification of the endogenous folate receptor (eFR) on

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the surface of live cells, which could not be efficiently labeled using LDT chemistry. More importantly,

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the LDAI method enabled the direct conversion of the eFR on cell surface into a fluorescent biosensor

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for sensing its ligands by incorporating fluorescein, which was utilized for the first live cell study of the

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binding kinetics of FR ligands.74 This example highlighted the utility of the traceless affinity-based

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labeling as a powerful approach for in situ construction of endogenous protein-based fluorescent

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biosensors and functional analysis of natural proteins in their native environments.

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4. Conclusions and outlook We have summarized recent advances in protein-based fluorescent biosensors and their application

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to live cell imaging. These not only demonstrated the great improvement of existing biosensors, but also

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provided novel and powerful tools in current biology and pharmacology. One of the important

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challenges in protein-based fluorescent biosensors is the application of these biosensors in tissues and

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whole animals. While several FP-based sensors have been used in tissues and transgenic animals, they

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often suffered from low signal-to-noise ratios owing to its low brightness and/or short wavelength. 1,18

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The further engineered NIR FPs derived from bacterial phytochromes, more suitable biosensors for deep

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tissue in vivo imaging, will settle this problem. On the other hand, usage of semisynthetic biosensors in

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vivo is still limited because of the difficulty in their delivery to whole animals. However, newly

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emerging strategies, such as Snifits based on the SNAP-tag technology and traceless affinity labeling

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methods, may have the potential to construct semisynthetic biosensors even in animals as well as in

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cells.73,88

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Another significant challenge is in the simultaneous use of biosensors for multi-parameter imaging

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in a single cell. Recently, cell-to-cell heterogeneity has been shown to play critical roles for signal

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transduction.99,100 To address this phenomena, the simultaneous visualizing of multiple analytes in

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individual cells is essential to more precisely analyze the cellular function in their populations. However,

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despite the availability of a wide range of fluorescent biosensors for detecting specific biomolecules and

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events, a limited number of spectrally distinct probes have hampered such multiplexed imaging of

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individual signaling pathways.21 Therefore, many efforts should be dedicated to further expand the color

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palette of the fluorescent biosensors and to couple genetic and chemical strategies, which facilitate our

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understanding of the intricate cellular activities and networks.

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KEY WORDS

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1) Protein-based fluorescent biosensors: integrated devices that convert a molecular-recognition event

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to a fluorescent signal.

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2) Live cell imaging: the study of living cells using a fluorescent microscopy.

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3) Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET): a mechanism describing energy transfer between two

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fluorophores.

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4) Fluorescent proteins: protein family that shares the unique property of emitting a visible

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fluorescence.

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5) Fluorescent dyes: fluorescent chemical compounds.

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6) Unnatural amino acids: non-naturally encoded amino acids that are chemically synthesized.

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7) SNAP-tag: a self-labeling protein tag (19.4 kDa) commercially available in various expression

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vectors. SNAP-tag can be fused to any protein of interest, covalently tagging that protein with

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O6-benzylguanine derivatives.

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8) Affinity-based labeling: a method to chemically modify an amino acid residue within a specific

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ligand-binding site of a protein using a labeling reagent consisting of a protein ligand and a reactive

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group.

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AUTHOR INFORMATION

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Corresponding Author

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Email: [email protected]

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Note

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The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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T.T. thanks J.-L. Chaubard for helpful discussions and advice on the manuscript. T.T. also acknowledge

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the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Fellowships for Young Scientists. This work was

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funded by the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) Core Research for Evolutional Science and

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Technology (CREST) to I.H.

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FIGURES

Figure 1. Representative design formats for FRET-based biosensor. (a) A single binding domain undergoes a conformational change upon binding analyte. (b) Biosensors to monitor post-translational modifications. (c) Biosensors to detect protease activity. (d) Biosensors based on an analyte-dependent protein-protein interaction. (e, f) FRET-based sensors based on self-associating FPs. (e) Protease sensor. (f) eCALWY sensor for Zn2+.

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2 3 4 5 6

Figure 2. (a) Single FP biosensors containing unnatural amino acids (UAAs) in their chromophore. (b) Dimerization-dependent fluorescent proteins (ddFPs)-based biosensor.

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Figure 3. (a) A semisynthetic biosensor for Src-family kinase (SFK) activity. (b) HdeA-based semisynthetic biosensors for monitoring a wide range of pH changes (pH 7 ~ 2).

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Figure 4. (a) Labeling mechanism of SNAP-tag. (b) Schematic illustration of the principle of Snifits sensor.

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Figure 5. Conversion of native (endogenous) proteins into semisynthetic fluorescent biosensors in cells by (a) LDT, LDAI, and (b) AGD chemistry.

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