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Red-Light-Driven Water Splitting by Au(Core)-CdS(Shell) Half-Cut Nanoegg with Heteroepitaxial Junction Shin-ichi Naya, Takahiro Kume, Ryo Akashi, Musashi Fujishima, and Hiroaki Tada J. Am. Chem. Soc., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b12972 • Publication Date (Web): 10 Jan 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on January 10, 2018
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Journal of the American Chemical Society
Red-Light-Driven Water Splitting by Au(Core)-CdS(Shell) Half-Cut Nanoegg with Heteroepitaxial Junction Shin-ichi Naya,† Takahiro Kume,‡ Ryo Akashi,‡ Musashi Fujishima,‡ Hiroaki Tada†‡* †
Environmental Research Laboratory, Kindai University, 3-4-1, Kowakae, Higashi-Osaka, Osaka 577-8502, Japan.
‡
Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Kindai University, 3-4-1, Kowakae, Higashi-Osaka, Osaka 577-8502, Japan.
Supporting Information Placeholder ABSTRACT: A key material for artificial photosynthesis including water splitting is heteronanostructured (HNS) photocatalysts. The photocatalytic activity depends on the geometry and dimension, and the quality of junctions between the components. Here we present a half-cut Au(core)-CdS(shell) (HC-Au@CdS) nanoegg as a new HNS plasmonic photocatalyst for water splitting. UV-light irradiation of Au nanoparticle (NP)-loaded ZnO (Au/ZnO) at 50oC induces the selective deposition of hexagonal CdS on the Au surface of Au/ZnO with an epitaxial (EPI) relation of CdS{0001}/Au{111}. The subsequent selective dissolution of the ZnO support at room temperature yields HC-Au@CdS with the Au NP size and EPI junction (#) retained. Red-light irradiation (λex = 640 nm) of HC-Au@#CdS gives rise to continuous stoichiometric water splitting with an unprecedentedly high external quantum yield of 0.24%.
Solar water splitting by photocatalysts is a key technology for realizing the "hydrogen economy".1 The photocatalyst should simultaneously satisfy the following requirements to achieve high efficiency: (1) strong absorption of the sunlight in a wide wavelength region, (2) generation of electron-hole pairs with sufficient potentials to reduce and oxidize water, respectively, (3) effective charge separation, (4) smooth transport of the reactants/products to/from the reaction sites, and (5) long-term stability. In the solar spectrum, the number of photons impinging on the earth largely ranges over 500-950 nm with a peak at 680 nm (Scheme S1).2 Various semiconductor photocatalysts have intensively been investigated for water splitting.3-5 While the thermodynamic minimum input energy is 1.23 eV (photon wavelength λ ≈ 1000 nm), the band gap is usually larger than 2.5 eV (λ < 500 nm) because of the large overpotential.6 Recently, water splitting has been achieved with an external quantum efficiency (QYex) of 0.03% at λex = 430 nm using a perovskite-type oxynitride photocatalsyt operable at up to 600 nm.7,8 Thus far, there is no semiconductor material photocatalytically active for water splitting under irradiation at λ > 600 nm.9 On the other hand, Au nanoparticle (NP) possesses strong absorption in the visible region due to the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR).10 Au NP-based heteronanostructures (HNSs) enabling to harvest and concentrate even sub-band gap photons by the "plasmonic antenna effect" are very promising as the key material for highly efficient solar-tochemical11,12 and solar-to-electric conversions.13,14 In the "plasmonic photocatalysts" represented by Au NP-loaded TiO2 (Au/TiO2), the LSPR excitation drives the interfacial electron
transfer from Au NP to TiO2 to induce water oxidation and reduction on Au and TiO2, respectively.15 Plasmonic water splitting has been shown for a TiO2-capped Au nanorod plasmonic photocatalyst with Pt as hydrogen evolution catalyst on TiO2 and Co-based oxygen evolution catalyst on Au (QYex averaged over visible region = ~0.1%),16 and a Au/TiO2-NiOx plasmonic photocatalyst (QYex = 0.013% at λex = 600 nm).17 The limited efficiency is probably because the CB minimum of TiO2 (ECBM = -0.13 V at pH 0 vs. standard hydrogen electrode) is not sufficient for water reduction. Recent studies have shown that the LSPR excitation of Au NP-CdS hybrids also causes the interfacial electron transfer from Au NP to CdS.18-20 Since CdS has the CB minimum (ECBM = -1.16 V) much more negative potential than TiO2,21 Au-CdS HNSs take advantage of H2 generation over Au/TiO2. Importantly, selective excitation of the Au NP-LSPR could suppress the photodissolution of CdS22 so far hampering its use as the water splitting photocatalyst. The geometry of the metal-semiconductor HNSs is of principal importance for the photocatalytic activity. The unit structures can be basically divided into loading type (Type I, metal/semiconductor)23,24 and core-shell type (Type II, metal@semiconductor)25 by neglecting the component shapes and the connecting mode (Scheme S1).26,27 For the effective charge separation to occur, the intimate and large-area contact between metal NP and semicondutor are crucial. The core-shell structure is an ideal form; however, the shell impedes the supply of reactant (water) to the core surface and the diffusion of the products (oxygen and proton) from the surface. To solve this problem, we have designed a half-cut metal@semiconductor HNS (type III, HCmetal@semiconductor). In this system, a large-area contact between the components is maintained concurrently with the core surface exposed to water, which enables the smooth diffusion of the reactant/product to/from the reaction sites. The absorption spectra for Au NP, Au/CdS, Au@CdS and HC-Au@CdS in water were calculated by the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method (Scheme S1). The LSPR of Au NPs is located around 520 nm. In Au@CdS, the LSPR peak only slightly shifts to 530 nm. Significant damping of the LSPR is observed in Au/CdS, while the LSPR peak redshifts to ~600 nm. On the other hand, in HCAu@CdS, the LSPR peak shifts to ~600 nm concurrently with the absorption broadened and enhanced. Consequently, HC-Au@CdS is hopefully suitable as a photocatalyst for solar water splitting. Here we present a versatile technique for preparing HCmetal@semiconductor HNSs, showing that HC-Au@CdS plasmonic photocatalyst with large-area and epitaxial (EPI) junction exhibits a very high red-light activity for water splitting.
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Figure 1. (a) TEM image for Au@CdS/ZnO. (b) CdS shell thickness (lCdS) as a function of irradiation time (tp). HR-TEM images for Au@CdS/ZnO (c) and Au/ZnO (d).
We have synthesized HC-Au@CdS by a three-step route (Scheme S2). Au NPs are loaded on ZnO particles (Au/ZnO) by the deposition-precipitation method with the mean size (dAu) controlled by calcination temperature (Tc).28 Next, CdS shell is selectively formed on the Au surface of the Au/ZnO (Au@CdS/ZnO). Finally, the ZnO support is removed from Au@CdS/ZnO. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of Au/ZnO shows that Au NPs with dAu = 5.5 ± 1.7 nm were highly dispersed on ZnO (Fig. S1). Firstly, we attempted to form the CdS shell on the Au surface of Au/ZnO by the conventional chemical bath deposition (CBD)29 and successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) methods (Fig. S2).30 However, the CBD method causes the separation of Au NPs from the ZnO support (Fig. S2a), while CdS is preferentially deposited on the ZnO surface in the SILAR method (Fig. S2b). Then, the photodeposition (PD) method was applied to Au/ZnO.31 Au/ZnO was dispersed into a deaerated ethanol solution of Cd(ClO4)2 and S8. The suspension was illuminated by UV-LED lamp at -10°C or 50°C. X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern confirms that the resulting sample consists of metallic Au, and hexagonal ZnO and CdS (Fig. S3). The TEM image shows selective formation of a uniform CdS shell on the surface of every Au NP to yield Au@CdS/ZnO (Fig. 1a). The CdS shell thickness (lCdS/nm) can be controlled within 5 nm by irradiation time (Fig. 1b, Fig. S4). High resolution (HR)-TEM images for Au/ZnO before and after the CdS PD at 50oC exhibit that the CdS shell formation induces the Au(111) facets with the d-spacing of 0.236 nm (Fig. 1c), whereas most Au NPs of Au/ZnO do not have clear facets (Fig. 1d). The d-spacing of 0.333 nm for the CdS shell is in agreement with the value for the hexagonal CdS(0002) plane (ICDD, No. 41-1049). The CdS shell grows on the Au(111) surface with an EPI relation of CdS{0001}/Au{111}, and the CdS domain corresponding to each Au facet likely comprises single crystal. On the other hand, the PD at -10oC yields non-EPI Au@CdS hybrids (Fig. S5). Thus, the warming at 50oC during the PD plays an important role in the EPI-junction formation: the EPI junction is expressed by the symbol # below. Similar heteroexpitaxy of CdSe{0001}/Au{111} has been reported for the CdSe nanorod-Au system annealed at 250°C.32 Although the ZnO support is soluble in acidic or alkaline solution, it must be removed under mild conditions in order not to damage the CdS shell. We have found that a 0.4 M aqueous solution of disodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate (EDTA-2Na) dis-
solves ZnO under neutral conditions at room temperature. In the XRD pattern, the diffraction of ZnO disappears (Fig. S3). Zn2pX-ray photoelectron (XP) spectra (Fig. S6) and FT-IR spectra (Fig. S7) further confirm that ZnO and EDTA-2Na are completely removed. TEM image for Au@CdS/ZnO after the treatment exhibits a HC-core-shell HNS, where the Au NP core is partially covered with the CdS shell (Fig. 2a). The HR-TEM image shows that the EPI relation of CdS{0001}/Au{111} in Au@#CdS/ZnO is also maintained for HC-Au@#CdS (Fig. 2b). Both the Au(111) and the CdS(0001) planes have hexagonal symmetry, and the three unit cells in the Au(111) plane (0.86512 nm) fit with the two unit cells in the CdS(0001) plane (0.82738 nm) with a lattice mismatch degree of -4.36% (Fig. 2c). For comparison, Au NP was deposited on CdS by the PD method (Au/CdS), but the interface is non-EPI (Fig. S8). HC-Au@#CdS has good dispersion stability in water. Interestingly, the features of the FDTD-calculated absorption properties for the Au-CdS HNSs are more pronounced in the absorption spectra for the aqueous suspensions. The absorption edge of the CdS colloid is located at λ = 520 nm, while Au colloid has the LSPR peak at λ = 520 nm (Fig. 2d). In Au/CdS, the AuNP LSPR undergoes strong damping. In contrast, HC-Au@#CdS possesses the interband transition of CdS at λ < 500 nm, and very broad and intense LSPR around 620 nm. a)
b) CdS(1011) 0.316 nm
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HC-Au@#CdS(dAu = 12.1 nm, lCdS = 2.1 nm)
HC-Au@#CdS(dAu = 5.5 nm, lCdS = 1.9 nm)
HC-Au@CdS(dAu = 5.5 nm, lCdS = 1.7 nm) CdS
400
Au
Au/CdS
600 800 1000 1200 1400 Wavelength ( nm )
Figure 2. TEM (a) and HR-TEM (b) images of HC-Au@#CdS. (c) Side view (left) and top view (right) of a proposed model for the CdS/Au NP interface. (d) UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of the aqueous solution of CdS, Au colloid, HC-Au(d = 5.5 nm)@CdS(lCdS = 1.7 nm), and HC-Au(d = 5.5 nm)@#CdS(lCdS = 1.9 nm), HC-Au(d = 12.1 nm)@#CdS(lCdS = 2.1 nm).
We studied the photocatalytic activity of various samples for water splitting at ambient pressure under red-light irradiation (λex = 640 ± 40 nm). While Au (dAu = 5.5 nm) or CdS colloid is almost inactive, H2 is evolved with a rate of ~0.25 µmol g-1 h-1 in the mixture system (Fig. 3a). On the other hand, the non-EPI HCAu(dAu = 5.5 nm)@CdS yields H2 with a rate of ~3 µmol g-1 h-1. Noticeably, HC-Au(dAu = 5.5 nm)@#CdS(lCdS = 1.9 nm) exhibits a high level of activity of ~8 µmol g-1 h-1, whereas no H2 was generated in the dark. Also, the structure-activity relationship was examined by comparing the three types of Au-CdS HNSs (Fig. 3b, Fig. S9). The photocatalytic activity of HC-Au@#CdS far exceeds those of the others, and water is stoichiometrically decomposed into H2 and O2 (2 : 1) with those amounts increased in
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proportional to irradiation time. Au/ZnO and Au@#CdS/ZnO had no activity under the same conditions, and thus, the high activity does not emerge until the ZnO support of Au@#CdS/ZnO is removed. b) -1
H2 or O2 evolution ( µ mol g )
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Figure 3. (a) The comparison of the H2 evolution rate by HC-Au(dAu = 5.5 nm)@#CdS(lCdS = 1.9 nm), Au colloid, CdS, and mixture of Au and CdS under red-light illumination or dark. (b) Time courses for H2 evolution by HC-Au(dAu = 5.5 nm)@CdS (lCdS = 1.9 nm) ( ▲ ), Au@CdS(●), and Au/CdS (▼) and for O2 evolution by HC-Au(dAu = 5.5 nm)@CdS(lCdS = 1.9 nm) (∆) under red-light illumination. The broken straight line shows the half of the H2 generation rate. (c) Plots of H2 evolution rate and the average transit time of the electrons in CdS (τ) calculated by Eq. 2 as a function of the CdS thickness (lCdS). (d) Repeated water splitting by HC-Au(dAu = 12.1 nm)@CdS(lCdS = 2.1 nm) under red-light illumination.
The photocatalysis of HC-Au@#CdS under red-light irradiation can be basically explained by the LSPR-induced hotelectron transfer mechanism (Scheme 1). The LSPR of the Au core is selectively excited at λex = 640 nm since the CdS shell only has absorption at λ < 500 nm. The hot-electrons generated in Au via Landau damping are injected into the CB of CdS.18-20 The CB-electrons in CdS with a potential of -1.16 V can reduce water to yield H2 (potential of electrode reaction, E(H2O/H2) = -0.41 V at pH 7). Lowering in the EF of Au NP from +0.87 V33 with the interfacial electron transfer provides the driving force for the oxidation of water to O2 (E(O2/H2O) = +0.81 V at pH 7).20,34 There is also a possibility that water is directly oxidized by the hot-holes with strong oxidation ability, which are generated as the pairs of the hot-electrons in Au NP by the LSPR-excitation. The fact that Au@CdS is almost inactive is also consistent with the LSPRinduced h mechanism, excluding the possibility of the resonant energy transfer mechanism, which is effective only for Au NPs with resonance frequencies that correspond to energies within the
CB
hν (λ > 600 nm) e-
Au
2H2O O2 + 2H+
φrec ∆E
E / V vs. SHE at pH 7
H2
-1.16 -0.41
2H+ +0.81 EF = +0.87
+ CdS
semiconductor's band gap.12 In the LSPR-induced hot-electron transfer mechanism, the electron transmission probability (η) can be approximated by the modified Fowler theory.35 Further taking the recombination via the trap levels at the interface into consideration leads to Eq. 1.
η ≈ CS(ν)(1 - φrec)(hν - ∆E)2/hν (1) where C is constant, S(ν) is the plasmon absorption spectrum, φrec is the recombination probability at the interface, hν is the photon
200
H2 evolution rate ( µmol g h )
→
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
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Scheme 1. LSPR-induced hot-electron transfer mechanism in the HCAu@#CdS plasmonic photocatalyst.
energy, and ∆E is the energy difference between the EF of the Au core and the CB-edge level of the CdS shell. The lCdS-dependence of the photocataltyic activity of HCAu(dAu = 5.5 nm)@#CdS was examined. The activity is quite sensitive to lCdS, having a maximum around lCdS = 2 nm (Fig. 3c). The increase in lCdS at < 2 nm significantly decreases the ∆E due to weakening of the quantum size effect36 to increase the photocatalytic activity. On the other hand, too much lowering in the CB-edge level decreases the driving force for the water reduction. In this system, the electric field in the CdS shell can be neglected because the thickness is smaller than 5 nm. For the spherical model in the absence of electric field gradient, the average transit time (τ) of electron can be related to its mobility (µe) by Eq. 2.37
τ = elCdS2/π2µekT
(2)
where e is elementary charge, k is Boltzmann's constant. The τ value was calculated as a function of lCdS using a µe value of 0.1 cm2 V-1 s-1 reported for a polycrystalline CdS film (Fig. 3c).38 By means of femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy, the lifetime of the electrons injected into the CdS nanorod by the LSPR-induced hot-electron transfer from the Au tip in a Au-tipped CdS nanorod system was determined to be 1.83 ps,18 which is comparable with the τ value at lCdS ≈ 2 nm (1.6 ps). Thus, the surface reaction or water reduction on CdS can be competitive with the back electron transfer at lCdS < ~2 nm. The balance of these effects leads to the volcano-shaped relation between the photocatalytic activity and the CdS shell thickness. The much superior activity of HC-Au@#CdS to HC-Au@CdS can be explained in terms of the decrease in φrec due to the former highquality junction. This conclusion is further supported by the very low activity of the physical mixture system of Au and CdS NPs. Finally, the photocatalytic activity test was repeated for HCAu(dAu = 12.1 nm)@#CdS(lCdS = 2.1 nm) (Fig. 3d). Surprisingly, the rate of H2 generation (79.2 ± 2.1) increases as compared to that for HC-Au(dAu = 5.5 nm)@#CdS(lCdS = 1.9 nm) by approximately one-order of magnitude (bottom in Fig. 3a). The QYex at λex = 640 nm was calculated to be 0.24% by the equation of QYex = 2 × (generation rate of H2 molecules)/(Iλex/hc), where I is intensity of the incident light, h is the Plank constant, and c is the speed of light. The evolution rates of H2 and O2 hardly change with the ratio of 2 : 1 maintained over 200 h. Under these conditions, the LSPR of Au NP in HC-Au@#CdS is selectively excited by redlight irradiation, which would lead to the excellent photostability. The striking Au particle size effect should mainly stem from the increase in S (Fig. 2c), while the small photocatalytic activity of Au/CdS is incurred by the strong damping of the LSPR or decrease in S. In summary, we have designed and synthesized HCAu@#CdS by means of a unique PD-based technique. Red-light irradiation (λex = 640 nm) of HC-Au@#CdS leads to stable stoichiometric water splitting with an unprecedentedly high external quantum yield of 0.24%. We can anticipate that the photocatalytic activity of HC-Au@#CdS is further improved by using cocatalysts. Also, the present technique is useful for the preparation of various plasmonic HNSs36 with EPI-junction enhancing the efficiency of the solar energy conversion and storage.
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT Supporting Information The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website. Materials and Experimental Methods; Solar spectrum and the absorption spectra measured and FDTD-calculated absorption spectra; Strategy for half cut nanoparticle; TEM image of Au/ZnO; TEM images of CdS deposited Au/ZnO by CBD method and by SILAR method; XRD patterns, TEM images of Au@CdS/ZnO by photodeposition; HR-TEM image of non-EPI Au@CdS/ZnO; XPS spectra; FT-IR spectra; HR-TEM image of Au/CdS; Au particle size distribution (PDF)
AUTHOR INFORMATION Corresponding Author * Tel +81-6-6721-2332; Fax +81-6-6727-2024; E-mail:
[email protected].
ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was partially supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) No. 15K05654 and MEXT-Supported Program for the Strategic Research Foundation at Private Universities.
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