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EDITORIALS
RESEARCH WHAT-WHO-WHERE-WHY I n d u s t r i a l development, of t h e s o r t t h a t comes with n e w a n d b e t t e r processes, materials, a n d machinery t o g e t h e r with i m p r o v e d m e t h o d s of m a n i p u l a t i o n a n d production, i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e influences of domestic and foreign t r a d e relations, tariff o r financial s y s t e m s o r legislation, m u s t , a s it always has, d e p e n d directly o n t h e s y s t e m a t i c searchings of t h e engineers, chemists a n d physicists familiar w i t h present shortcomings a n d with t h e possibilities of t h e i r elimination. T h e u r g e n t need of s u c h development w o r k h a s been repeatedly d e m o n s t r a t e d b y b o t h chemists a n d engineers for m a n y years, b u t , i t m u s t be confessed, with b u t little effect. on t h o s e responsible for t h e appropriations without which it r e m a i n s as impossible a s if t h e need were n o t recognized n o r t h e necessary t a l e n t available. T h e need is real a n d t h e t a l e n t is t o be h a d , therefore, a n y lack of progress c a n b e directly t r a c e d t o lack of ability t o convince financial m a n a g e m e n t s t h a t t h e e m p l o y m e n t of t h e t a l e n t i s necessary o r t h a t it will be profitable. A n y t h i n g t h a t will serve t o help o u t t h i s s i t u a t i o n b y d e m o n s t r a t i o n o r a r g u m e n t is w o r t h while a n d w o r t h y of e n c o u r a g e m e n t o n t h e b r o a d e s t grounds. S u c h , for example, is t h e presidential address of Mr. A . D. Little, directed particularly t o w a r d t h e chemical industries a n d more especially t o w a r d t h e development of chemical p r o d u c t s and processes r a t h e r {han t h e engineering necessarily involved t o m a k e these i n d u s t r i a l realities. T h e e x t e n t of t h e influence of this address needs n o b e t t e r d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a n t h e editorial notice given t o it b y t h e most excellent a n d conservative English journal, Engineering ( q u o t e d i n full below), U n f o r t u n a t e l y s o m e of t h e force of Mr. Little’s a r g u m e n t s a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e of t h e thing h a v e been lost in s u b s e q u e n t quibbles over t h e meaning of t h e word “research,” used b y h i m a s a n a m e for t h e general a n d s y s t e m a t i c finding of remedies for existing f a u l t s i n t h e materials, processes, machinery o r mechanical e q u i p m e n t of industrial p l a n t s . T h e t r o u b l e arises f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e r m h a s been for so long used in a n a r r o w academic sense, entirely divorced f r o m commercial utility, b y m e n calling themselves scientific and regarding a n y search for knowledge as p r o p e r research only when t h e result has n o m o g e y value. Is i t a n y wonder, t h e n , t h a t a t e m p e s t i n a t e a p o t h a s arisen, first, o n t h e p a r t of t h e schoolm a s t e r s a n d t h e i r kind, who object t o t h e desecration of t h e i r sacred L L r e ~ e a r c hfor ” t h e vulgar procedure of t r a d e a n d money-making, and t h e n on t h e p a r t of financiers of t h e industries who f e a r t h a t M r . Little is urging t h e m t o s p e n d money for t h a t s o r t of research which i t s oldest a d v o c a t e s insist m u s t n o t yield r e t u r n s if t r u e a n d proper. REAL VS. ACADEMIC RESEARCH
“ I n a recent presidential address to the American Chemical Society, Mr. A. D. Little emphasized the importance of re-
search work in industrial operations, and if the term can be rightly interpreted few will care to dispute his contention. The term ‘research’ is, however, a much abused one, and by chemists, a t any late, is generally made to cover not only investigations of fundamental importance, such as those of Willard Gibbs into chemical and physical equilibrium, but also mere measurements by some third-year students of, say, the refractive indices of a series of compounds, work, which though possibly quite valuable, could be equally efficiently effected by a grocer’s apprentice. In fact, measurements as fully entitled as these to be classed as research are made as a part of the daily routine at every glow-lamp factory, where candle-powers are measured and checked by girls knowing as much of optics as a cow does of the calculus. TRUE RESEARCH WORK NOT LIMITED TO LABORATORIES
“ I n common parlance, the term ‘research’ is accorded to any investigations made in a specially equipped laboratory, and by a special staff, while it is refused to, perhaps, more fundamentally original and intrinsically ‘more valuable work carried out in the drawing office or in the works with improvised apparatus. Rlr. Little was less eclectic than this in his own use of the term, and included among research workers those ingenious mechanics who have developed agricultural machinery, or such useful devices as the Westinghouse brake and the methods and instruments associated with the electric telegraph. With this view, though it is not the commonly accepted one, we fully agree. A draughtsman who schemes a new layout for a machine shop 0; a mechanic who ‘practicalizes’ a machine tool is, in fact, more truly engaged in research work than a chemist who shows, say, that in a certain organic compound one halogen may replace another. GERMANY
LEADS I N LABORATORY,
NOT I N TRUE RESEARCH
INDUSTRIAL
“If, however, the term ‘research’ be interpreted on this compiehensive basis, we think few will be prepared to concede to Germany the pre-eminence in research which RIr. Little claims for her. Such a claim is defensible only when the term is limited, we might almost say degraded, t o cover a laboratory work solely, often partaking largely of a routine character. Undoubtedly much very valuable work has issued from German laboratories, but it can hardly be claimed that any undue proportion of the many great advances made in various departments of applied science during the past few years have thus originated. The Diesel engine, for instance, is balanced by the telephone, and incandescent gas lighting by the electric glow lamp. THE BORN
VS. THE P A I D DEPARTMENT
INVESTIGATOR
FACTORY
RESEARCH
“ I t seems to us that research work of value can generally be divided into two classes. In the first place, pioneering researches, in which the man is everything, and the equipment relatively unimportant. Behind these pioneers come, however, a whole army of other investigators, who, by patient and intelligent industry, develop the regions opened by the men of superior genius. Research work of this second kind leads often to very valuable results. It is, however, largely a matter of expenditure and organization, and can almost be bought in the open market, as if it were a material commodity. The labor is very great, so that the credit for the result achieved appertains as much to those bold enough to finance the work as to those who make the actual observations and measurements. Mr. Carnegie was, we believe, the first steel maker in America to employ a works chemist, and he has stated that the venture proved highly profit-
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T H E J O U R X A L O F I N D C ‘ S T R I A L A N D EAVGIXEERIiVG C H E M I S T R Y
able, since it was found that by purchasing ore by analysis, rather than by reputation, very large economies were realized. No one, howyever, could contend that great insight into chemical theories and physical facts is needed for the analysis of an iron ore. Care, industry and average intelligence are the main essentials, and such qualities are not specially uncommon, while genius is seldom on sale. “Though in one part of his address hlr. Little seems to take, as stated, a comprehensive view as to what constitutes research, in much of it he would appear to have most sympathy with the kind that can be organized in a works laboratory, and he makes a special plea for more work of this chaiacter. Much undoubtedly can be effected in this way, but how far the system should be extended depends very largely on the nature of the industry involved.” X distinction, frequently m a d e here in America, a n d f o u n d more often in engineering t h a n chemical lines, is indicated b y t h e n a m e s Research, Dei-elopment a n d Experimental D e p a r t m e n t s . T h e Research Dep a r t m e n t , proper, u n d e r t a k e s t h e more difficult probl e m s of a b r o a d or general n a t u r e w i t h o u t special reference t o i m m e d i a t e commercial d e m a n d , t h e solut i o n of which is most obscure a n d which requires, a t least for t h e direction, m e n of the rarer sort with n a t u r a l tendencies t o w a r d investigation, born research m e n . Development D e p a r t m e n t s , while doing research work also, a r e primarily concerned w i t h perfection of a process or machine, t h e general n a t u r e of which is k n o w n at t h e start, a n d which is properly a p r o d u c t of t h e Research D e p a r t m e n t , and generally i n t h e f o r m of a p a t e n t a b l e invention; t h e a i m is n o w t o find t h e best f o r m a n d materials for commercial production a n d use. T h e t h i r d or Experimental D e p a r t m e n t merely perf o r m s routine t e s t s , t h e e n d a n d a i m of which a r e d a t a for checking specifications of quality or performance, or for detecting those defects of routine factory source which a n ordinary factory force c a n correct: t h e work of such an experimental d e p a r t m e n t is purely routine, c a n b e learned quickly b y a n y o n e a n d never i t often is. should b e called research at all-though F r e q u e n t l y it h a p p e n s t h a t one establishment c a n n o t afford t h r e e such d e p a r t m e n t s so t h a t t h e work is all t h r o w n i n t o one, variously n a m e d . Or, cons u l t a n t s a r e used t o s u p p l y t h e sort of direction required of t h e first and second or t o entirely replace t h e m when t h e consultant has at c o m m a n d suitable a p p a r a t u s , e q u i p m e n t a n d organization, in which case such a n i n d e p e n d e n t investigation or research establishment m a y serve t o a d v a n t a g e m a n y individuals i n m a n y different industries. It i s t h i s sort of t h i n g t h a t is n o w growing u p as a proper b o n d between t h e staffs a n d laboratories of o u r b e t t e r mechanical, electrical a n d chemical engineering schools and t h e industries w i t h which t h e y a r e concerned. M u c h of t h e best work now being done i n t h i s cooperative w a y b y o u r i n d e p e n d e n t research m e n or investigators a n d t h e industrial establishments is carried o n either i n t h e works themselves o r i n t h e field outside of t h e producers’ works b u t w i t h o u t a n y laboratory proper. T h e i m p o r t a n t point here i s t h a t t h e place of doing t h e work is of n o consequence i n comparison with t h e finding of capable m e n t o direct i t a n d keeping t h e m b u s y t o avoid waste of good talent.
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ISDCSTRIAL LABORATORY VALUES AND LIMITATIONS
“We gather that chemists find that in the chemical trades new ideas can be completely and satisfactorily tested in a works laboratory. One of our leading cotton manufacturing firms has also found an organization of this character to be highly profitable, having established many years ago lavishly equipped experimental works in which new ideas are thoroughly investigated. Nothing, however, is published as to the results attained. If a proposed innovation passes satisfactory tests, it is adopted quietly and with as little publicity as possible. As a consequence, when the daily Press expatiates on some remarkable improvement in in textile methods as having been recently introduced abroad, i t is the case, more often than not, that the identical device has been in commercial operation for years past in the factories of the firm in question. Other British firms pursue a similar policy, carrying out a very large amount of research work of this kind, while saying as little as possible about it. Sheep-dip makers, for instance, investigate, both in their laboratories and on the spot, the life-history and couise of development of insect pests from every part of the world, but none of them advertise the fact. “The organized research laboratory is not, however, so well adapted to the art of engineering as to some other industries, though even here it may unquestionably prove a t times quite valuable. Its drawbacks have a twofold origin. In t h e first place engineering is an art rather than a science. Its exponents are to be classed with other creative minds, and only the routine portion of their work can safely be delegated to others. One of our most progressive engineers has refused for this reason t o establish in his works a research laboratory for the solution of such difficulties as may arise. The man who has encountered the difficulties generally knows more about it than he can put in writing, or transfer to another in any other way. He is, therefore, in this engineer’s view, the proper man to find the solution, and he is accordingly encouraged to experiment himself. The system in question has proved highly successful, but no doubt there are also cases where certain investigations can properly and conveniently be carried out on the lines advocated by Mr. Little. A striking example of highly valuable work conducted in a factory research laboratory is, in fact, afforded by the history of the tungsten filament lamp. The number of cases in which satisfactory solutions of engineering problems can be found in this way is, however, limited by the circumstances that engineering is concerned quite as much with dynamics as with statics. Laboratory tests may quite easily show the capabilities of a new metallic filament lamp or the value of a new dye-stuff, but in more truly mechanical matters the test of service is often the only really reliable one. The original Lee-bletford rifle, for instance, passed triumphantly through the most searching tests that those responsible for its design could conceive of, but a very few months’ service showed that Mr. Thomas Atkins devised without difficulty much more tryiAg ordeals for the weapon, and Mark I. was in consequence very rapidly superseded. “Most of our large firms take very great precautions t o secure the thorough reliability of a new product before definitely placing it on the market. In very many cases, however, it is absolutely necessary that the novelty shall be tested in actual service, and it is not always either convenient or possible to effect this a t the maker’s works. The machine is, therefore, tested by special arrangement with a customer and is neither listed in a catalog nor otherwise advertised till this, the final test, is completed. “ Considerations of this kind greatly restrict the applicability of organized research work in the field of mechanical engineering, and as one consequence, the openings offered to students from technical colleges are less promising than they are in many other departments of industry. hlany such students do indeed find work on the test-beds of manufacturing firms, only to dis-
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cover after a year or two that such duties offer no prospect of advancement, and add very little t o their knowledge of engineering. In one case, after spending some years at the testbed of a firm of steam turbine builders, an ex-student had not even learned the essential differences between a reaction and an impulse turbine. Such matters were not included in the curriculum of his college a t the date of his graduation, and he added little or nothing to this ignorance by his years of testing.” W i t h some of t h i s we c a n n o t agree, for n o m a t t e r h o w poorly t h e l a b o r a t o r y m a y serve t h e purpose of profitable i m p r o v e m e n t , a s is u n d o u b t e d l y t h e case i n m a n y instances, a n d n o m a t t e r h o w little m a y b e t h e value of testing work t o engineering g r a d u a t e s or t o t h e i r employers, i t does n o t follow t h a t s u c h considerations greatly restrict t h e applicability of organized research work i n t h e field of mechanical engineering or i n a n y o t h e r branch. T h e distinction here rests again o n n a m e s ; laboratories as generally unders t o o d a r e n o t essential t o some very useful research n o r is t h e existence of a testing d e p a r t m e n t proof of t h e doing of research work. Forces of m e n m a y spend their lives making consumption t e s t s of turbines, s t r e n g t h t e s t s of metals or determining calorific powers of fuels i n well equipped laboratories a n d i m p r o v e related industries n o t one bit, a n d y e t one m a n with n o l a b o r a t o r y whatever m a y stroll leisurely t h r o u g h a few establishments or sit a t his desk a n d evolve a n i m p r o v e m e n t t h a t m a y materially a d v a n c e several industries a t once when developed, t h o u g h before g e t t i n g i t i n s h a p e for commercial use experimental development work is almost universally required. Depending o n t h e case, t h i s work m a y be most profita b l y done i n laboratories, i n s h o p or i n t h e field, b u t i t m u s t b e done. T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Harvester C o m p a n y h a s a d d e d more t o i m p r o v e m e n t of agricultural conditions b y i t s machine a n d i m p l e m e n t developm e n t s t h a n a n y organization i n t h e world, b u t i t h a s n o research l a b o r a t o r y , t h o u g h maintaining testing a n d development d e p a r t m e n t s . T h i s does n o t m e a n t h a t it does n o research, for such results could n o t be produced w i t h o u t research, only i t would be obviously a b s u r d t o t r y t o develop s t a n d a r d plows, a n d t r a c t o r s t o pull t h e m , suitable for every soil i n t h e world b y a n y l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s ; t h e machines m u s t be planned, built a n d t h e n t r i e d a n d s t u d i e d everywhere, t h e n r e t u r n e d t o t h e shops, changed t o correct faults a n d t r i e d again. T h e real research m e n here a r e those who p l a n and s t u d y o p e r a t i o n i n t h e plowing field, t h e only place where i t c a n be studied, a n d who t h e n analyze faults a n d plan a g a i n ; these m e n s p e n d most of their t i m e i n railroad t r a i n s r a t h e r t h a n i n laboratories; i n t h e t r u e sense t h e i r l a b o r a t o r y is t h e plowing field, a s i t should be. Americans c a n n o t agree with t h e idea t h a t t h e fore-
f
m a n or superintendent or engineer, whose p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n is t h e production, at lowest cost, of goods of proper s t a n d a r d quality, is t h e best m a n t o c a r r y on research or development work; q u i t e t o t h e c o n t r a r y , i n f a c t he is t h e very worst. T h i s is because, first, scheming always occupies t h e mind t o t h e exclusion of executive routine, which is his main business, a n d second, but vastly more i m p o r t a n t , t h e t y p e of mind a n d training t h a t best fits for one is destructive, or exclusive, of t h e o t h e r . N o m a n well a d a p t e d t o pushing routine economic production can possibly discover faults a n d remedies with efficiency, a n d certainly t h e creative m i n d t h a t can, becomes i m p a t i e n t with production routine a n d so neglects i t . RESEARCH AND THE PROFESSOR
“Experience in research work is often made a sine pia non for the holding of a professional chair at certain of our universities, and if the word ‘research’ be interpreted in a sufficiently liberal and comprehensive manner, the condition is, we think, a wise one. In many cases, however, the conduct of a few experiments on lubrication or on elastic moduli will be counted as research, though the experimenter may have displayed no deep knowledge of engineering and physical principles, and be quite incapable of giving material aid to the advancement of the art. He would, however, on the above basis, be preferred to a competitor who had never made a laboratory experiment in his life, but had been in responsible charge of, say, the bridge department of a large firm. “On the other hand, there are men of exceptional ability in really original research who have not the gift of commending themselves to students and who fail accordingly t o teach anything to any but a few exceptional men. A t the same time they may do such good work in the study as to more than outweigh their class room deficiencies so far as the world at large is concerned, unfortunate as matters may be for the average student. It is important that work of this character should be done, but the difficulty is t o reconcile the claims of abstract technics with the not unnatural demands of the average British parent. A University should certainly promote the former, but as teaching is also one of its functions, undergraduates have a right to demand that their interests shall not be wholly sacrificed to the claims of research.”
It is t r u e t h a t a g r e a t m a n y directors of engineering schools h a v e insisted o n a research record for newly a p p o i n t e d m e n without knowing j u s t w h a t t h e y m e a n t b y t h e requirement, a n d while some still do i t , t i m e s d o change a n d so d o s t a n d a r d s . F e w enlightenedschools n o w fail t o recognize t h a t b o t h teachers a n d investigators a r e absolutely necessary o n t h e staff] a n d while i t most c o m m o n l y h a p p e n s t h a t ability i n one line is inversely proportional t o s t r e n g t h i n t h e other, yet we k n o w of q u i t e a n u m b e r of m e n who possess t h i s d u a l power. C. E. LUCKE
ORIGINAL PAPERS THE BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND OF SEWAGES By ARTHUR L E D E R E R ~ Received September 26, 1914
T h i s p a p e r represents t h e result of a s t u d y of a t e s t t o determine t h e biochemical oxygen d e m a n d m a d e 1
Chemist and Bacteriologist, the Sanitary District of Chicago.
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b y a s u b c o m m i t t e e of t h e laboratory section of t h e American Public H e a l t h Association. I n t e r e s t i n t h i s subject has recently been revived t h r o u g h t h e adoption of s t a n d a r d s of permissible s t r e a m pollution b y t h e English R o y a l Commission on Sewage Disposal, embodied i n a n appendix of t h e 8 t h r e p o r t of
