July, 1911
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Mr. Kimball cites a number of similar cases in a paper on “ 1-entilation and Public Health” published n The a-lniials o j the Anzericaiz A c n d e w y of Political mid Social S c i e w e for March, 1911, the most striking of which are as follows: “The Germania Insurance Company o f New York in 1910 had eighty clerks in one office. Previous to the proper ventilation thereof, I O per cent. were absent on account of illness all the while. Since then the absenteeism has been reduced to nothing. “The vice-president of the Manhattan Trust Com;)any of New York states that by proper ventilation he has so increased the efficiency of his clerical force that he has been able to reduce the number of employees 4 per cent. ( < I na printing establishment in New York, a ventilation system was installed because of the insistence of the State Department of Labor that the law be complied with, the order having been resisted for two years. After the system had been in use a year the proprietor stated that had he known in advance of the results t o be obtained no order would have been necessary to have brought about the installation. Whereas formerly the men had left work on busy days in an exhausted condition and sickness was common. now the men left work on all days in a n entirely different condition, and sickness had been much reduced. The errors in typesetting and time required for making corrections were greatly reduced. “Townsend, Grace & Company, of Baltimore, built a straw hat factory without ventilating apparatus. The first two winters after occupation the sick-rate was 2 7 1 / ~ per cent. A ventilating system was then installed after which the winter sick-rate fell t o 7 per cent. It was claimed that the ventilating system paid for itself in one year.” It is much t o be desired that this problem should be studied by careful quantitative methods as a definite factor in the profit and loss account. The National Electric Lamp Association is approaching the question of sanitary conditions in this manner, comparing in detail the temperature and humidity of its work-rooms with the hours of work, the pay and the efficiency of its employees. Only by such systematic study can it be determined how much factory sanitation is really worth in any given case. The evidence is already strong enough, however, t o warrant some investigation. I n cases where preliminary study shows its value, why should not the sanitary inspection of a factory be made a part of its operation just as supervision of its mechanical features is a part of its organization to-day? I t is not solely or chiefly the problems of ventilation as ordinarily understood that should be studied; and it must be remembered that there is never anything magical in a “ventilating system.” “ Systems” are as dangerous in sanitation as quackery in medicine. The problem must be approached from a broad biological viewpoint, and should include all the conditions which make for lowered vitality. Temperature and humidity come first and foremost and dust and fumes must be guarded against in certain processes. The cleanliness of the factory, the purity
AIL’D ESGI.YEERI,VG CHE;1IISTRI’.
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of drinking water, the quality of lighting, the sanitary provisions and a dozen other points will suggest themselves to the skilled investigator when on the ground. He may find in many of these directions economic methods by which efficiency can be promoted. The consulting factory sanitarian will be a new factor in industry but the progress of industrial economy and of sanitary science unite in pointing to the need for such an expert. If the manufacturers will fully utilize the resources of technology in this direction they can write a new chapter in the history of industrial efficiency. REVIEW OF ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT.’ BY E. A. SPERRY. Received APril 24, 1911
The fundamental factor in bringing about the era in which we live, the great factor which characterizes the present day and distinguishes i t from ancient times, is the application of power. Authorities, the world over, agree to this. I t is often stated as being the “ introduction of machinery.” But there would be little machinery without ready, cheap and practical sources of power. In reviewing the early products in the various lines of activity, we are often struck with the wonderful ability exhibited in ancient times in the various branches ; for instance, oratory and statesmanship were probably carried t o as high a point as anything we can exhibit in modern times. We are also familiar with many examples of art and architecture produced in these early times, which equal, if not excel, examples of the present day, and even in matters relating to engineering; bridges and aqueducts were constructed, evincing wonderful knowledge in fundamentals. In many cases their dexterity excelled o u r own execution, for we must remember that an endless variety of implements, which to us are perfectly familiar and in every day use, were totally unknown t o these early workers. In the realm of power, however, and its myriad applications, we have what probably constitutes the greatest single advance of modern times. I do not think that any one will hesitate in agreeing also that thisespecialepoch, in the dawn of which we now live, is likely to be known as the age of electricity. I t has fallen to my lot to be more or less intimately acquainted with the phenomenal and wonderful advances in this field, advance taken by leaps and bozmds ; in single decades advances have been made equal to whole centuries in many other lines of activity. In the spring of 1884 I became the only Western delegate to come to this city from Chicago, to help in organizing the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. A small group of us gathered in the modest rented quarters of the then young society of Mechanical Engineers, on 23rd Street, and I became the fifth to sign the charter and placed my money on the table in the original act of organization of that society. A -4ddress before the annual meeting of the American Electrochemical Society. Ne=- Uork, April 7 . 1911.
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small group of earnest men builded wiser than they the purely chemical method, is illustrated b y ‘the knew in thus organizing a society which has since “ Solvay” process which was imported from Belgium become a body of international importance, and one and which employs as its principal raw material, doing much in the direct advancement of science and sodium chlorid, or common salt; but in the operation a r t in this important field, with its myriad branches of this process only one of the elements of this valuaand avenues of activity. I t s members now number ble compound, namely the sodium, is recovered. Our State was recently called upon to condemn and upwards of seven thousand. I t must be remembered t h a t a t this time the only to relinquish a lake of quite considerable size, for repractical and commercial application of electricity ceiving the deposit containing the other element, was in lighting. I n the Spring of the next year i t namely chlorin, which is a waste product rejected so happened t h a t I was Chairman of the Committee in this process. I n a number of electrolytic plants of Call of the first Convention of the National Electric in this country where the same raw material is emLight Association, which we organized in the City of ployed, practically I O O per cent. of both of these Chicago in 1885, and which is now a flourishing or- constituent elements are recovered and rendered ganization, having some eight thousand members available and useful, certainly marking an advanced doing a vast work in many fields of practical applica- movement in the point of conservation of our mineral tion of electricity, especially leading in the work of resources. This illustrates one only of the advantages conversion of all natural sources of power through- following the direct application of electricity in proout this country. cesses t h a t are known as “electrolytic.” Our good Mr. The topics and subjects brought u p for discussion Herreshoff here present tells me t h a t practically go a t this first Convention would have amused, if not per cent. of all the copper t h a t is used in the world amazed, this present audience. Earnest questions is refined electrolytically. Seventy or 8 0 per cent. as t o the possibility of being able t o use electricity of the original copper contains arsenic, minute quanas a motive power, and recounting disastrous results tities of which are known t o degrade copper and in trying t o use the few small electric motors of the render it practically useless as a n electrical conductor. time, all give a vivid idea of the struggles and dis- The electric arts employ about 7 0 per cent. of all the copper produced; thus the circuit may be said t o be couragements of those pioneer days. The art and industry which we foster represents closed in two ways-the electrolytic ministering t o the most direct and most recent development of this the electrical. There is quite a dramatic aspect connected with great advance movement in the application of power, in t h a t we bring power or energy in its most controll- this electrolytic copper refining not popularly underable, as well as its most active form, name electricity stood. Think of nine hundred thousand tons of this t o bear upon chemical actions and reactions, result- beautiful, glistening, red massive metal existing a s ing in many fields, in a much more direct and eco- a perfectly clear, watery solution in one stage of its nomical solution of the problems involved; in numer- life history, during its transit from anode t o cathode ous instances, in products otherwise unattainable after i t has been dissolved b y the direct action of and working economies which a t once place valuable electrical energy in the electrolyte! Started in Germany, this process was taken u p elements and compounds within reach of all, thus actively in England, but now i t may be said t h a t rendering great service to mankind. Electrochemistry as such may be said to be largely America is its home ; certainly, b y far, its greatest American in its origin, and emphatically American activity is to be found here, and we have here presin its practical development. I speak advisedly on ent probably the greatest worker in this a r t ; certainly this point. Our great water power resource and de- the one who has brought to its highest perfection velopment are not alone responsible for this, the electrolytic copper refining. Again, electrolysis has given the world aluminum. enterprise and enthusiasm of our technical and commercial men have played no small part in this great Only a few years ago this metal was $ 6 . 0 0 a pound. work. Such names as those of Castner, Hall, Wil- Then it gradually came down to 81.00. The engison, Atcheson, Herreshoff, Townsend, Dowe, and a neering world then gave its use the first passing host of others testify t o this. As t o this art being thought. Hall in this country and Heroult abroad, American in its large practical development, one working on and on, through many discouragements, has only to recount the numerous chemical processes succeeded finally by its electrolytic production ; b y the we have imported bodily from Europe, and almost direct application t h a t this method affords, in supwithout change adopted. Outside of this long list plying the energy for which this element has a n i t should be remembered that we are still currently enormous appetite, and so reducing its cost as to importing a large amount of chemical products. The place i t within reach of all. I n consequence, its incontrast with this quite strikingly emphasizes the dustrial applications have broadened, until 50,000 point we make that in the field of electrochemistry tons, valued a t $zo,ooo,ooo, are annually consumed. we have been enabled t o very largely supply the en- This metal also, like the copper, is in the form of a tire demand for electrochemical products and cut perfectly clear solution in one stage of its life history, down very materially, if not entirely, impor- with this difference, however: that in the case of the copper, the solution stage constitutes what may tation. The value of the electrochemical, as compared with be termed its “graduation certificate,” whereas with
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aluminum, it is even more far-reaching and actually constitutes its “birth certificate.” I might go on numerating interesting examples of these direct applications of electricity for producing chemical reaction, both in electrochemical and thermal applications which constitute the ’ principal activities and interests of our members. For instance, a most valuable product, calcium carbide, would not exist were it not for the electric furnace, this process having been discovered and brought out in this country by Mr. Wilson. One fact which arrested my attention, however, and for which I crave your indulgence for a moment more, is a fact brought out recently b y the noted authority in the field of original research, the next speaker, Dr. Whitney, of Schenectady, when he stated t h a t it was a fortunate circumstance when bodies were energized or otherwise induced to react, they did not directly tend, in the majority of cases, to reproduce the energy, or energy of thesame form; for instance, reactions do not tend directly t o produce heat, but, on the contrary, when energy, such as heat or electricity, is applied and a reaction takes place, a new compound is produced, that is, the operation “side-steps, ” so to speak, bringing about a new, and, broadly speaking, a n unexpected result. This phenomena of indirection, as i t may be called, seems to me to be a general law, a sort of a by-pass which nature takes in producing variety. I t may be stated that this is the manner in which variety occurs. So universal is this method that, as a matter of fact, it is difficult to obtain a reaction which does give back the energy in the same form as applied, e. g., the delicate processes necessary in constituting what is known as the storage battery, whereby electricity may be again returned after first having been introduced. The universal law seems to be one of translation instead of oscillation. I n fact, upon introduction, stresses will give you almost anything except a return of the particular stress, qualitatively. This phenomena having such a very striking and complete homologue in a totally different branch of science and one to which I have devoted considerable attention, I may be pardoned if I bring it to your attention by the use of a model which serves to illustrate in a most vivid way just what I mean. I hold before you a gyroscope having Cardan or universal mountings. The outer ring being pivoted, I now swing i t back and forth, and we see the inner ring which is mounted therein and its wheel simply partake of the same motion, and that nothing whatever peculiar occurs, that is, all of the parts move together, just as they should, back and forth, upon the pivots of the outer ring. But suppose I nom spin up the wheel within its inner ring and repeat the same operation, that is, attempt to swing the outer ring to and fro upon its pivots as before. Our attention is a t once arrested by the very peculiar, vigorous and unexpected motion which the inner ring now makes. I t is
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evident that this motion is not only automatic, being self-developed, but it seems to bear no relation whatever in this direction to that of the impressed forces, and upon close examination we find that it exists to the normal, or actually a t right angles to the line of the original energization. As a matter of fact, i t “side-steps,” and this it does invariably. With each application of stress in a given line or plane, the inner ring moves to and fro in a plane a t right angles, “sidestepping,” so to speak, under the impressed stress, and in a line or direction just as far removed from that of the impressed forces as it is possible for it to do, namely g o o measured either uniplaner or as a spherical function. Here we have this phenomenon in a form which we can handle, study, weigh and measure, The homologue, I believe, has a very farreaching significance and one which I cannot but believe derives its fundamental activity in this devious path from the same underlying principle, namely rotation. I t need not be rotation about its own axis, as in the case of the inner wheel before us, but it may be rotation about a remote center of which the observer has no knowledge, nor the existence of which he even suspects, yet all that is required is the presence of rotation or angular velocity, and when this is present in either ion, atom, molecule or mass, there invariably exists a definite and powerful tendency; a definite ponderable moment of effort in this new direction to one side practically a t right angles to that of the stress or forces impressed. These phenomena are not only qualitatively analogous, but I believe them t o be quantitative and determinable. Nor should we look upon such a solution of this action which seems almost universal, ;IS less significant. When we remember that motion itself is universal, all nature seems to be either in a state of motion or consisting 01 motion in its deeper significance. As the underlying principles of these motions are better understood, why should we not be able to assign definite values, to pre-cast definite directions in which the movements or reactions should proceed, and with the same degree of precision that we are now enabled to apply in that branch of the useful arts in which this self-same phenomenon is fundamental, is just now in rapid state of development and is destined to become an extremely important and useful force in the service of mankind? I hope that this seeming digression may be pardoned. By the use of the model I have endeavored to make clear to you the true nature of this phenomenon; the strange, physical reaction which we know as gyroscopic precession. Knowledge of this action was made use of by our great contemporary, Sir J. J . Thompson, in a number of notable observations made not long since, and I am hoping that i t may so impress itself upon your minds as to be equally useful to you. I t should not be understood that the observations and statements I have made are put forward as being in any way final, but are intended t o be more in the line of suggestion.
