Shortening Properties of
Plastic Fats ADELBERT W. HARVEY Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa.
An investigation of the pastry-shortening properties of some plastic fats was made by comparing the relative breaking strengths of pastry specimens in which these fats were used. This work included commercial hydrogenated vegetable oil products and lards as well as products prepared in the laboratory. Average lards and hydrogenated vegetable oil shortenings gave practically equivalent breaking strengths. The nonuniformity of lard was evidenced by the wide range of breaking strengths obtained with various lards. Attention is called to methods of varying the shortening properties and to the importance of the plasticity of the fat. Too extensive changes,
however, may result in sacrifice of other desirable properties. The practical equivalence of cottonseed oil and lard oil as constituents of oil-stearin type compounds is demonstrated. Lack of correlation is shown between the results obtained by the relative breaking strength method and shortness evaluation by subjective eating tests. Definite correlation is revealed between general preference for pastries and the subjective eating test evaluation of shortness. Decrease in the amount of shortening in a pastry below a reasonable level results in loss of quality. Lard was not proved to be adaptable for cake shortening in bakery practice.
T
comparison of plastic shortening fats, and also a large portion of the findings presented in this paper, were obtained by the breaking strength (shortometer) method, it is pertinent t o cite some facts about plain pastry. Mills (8) stated that pastry shortening should be firm in texture and that its proportion in the pastry is generally from 45 to 75 per cent of the weight of flour. A series of articles by Glabau (6) reviews the effects of shortening, water, mixing method, and baking temperature on the quality of plain pastry. The amount of water used and the method and extent of mixing for incorporation of the water into a mixture of fat and flour are concluded t o be the most important variables. Increase in either of these factors decreases the tenderness of the pastry. The amount of fat used and the method of blending the fat with flour influence both the tenderness and the type of texture of the pastry. Attention is directed to the danger of using too small a ratio of fat to flour because of loss of tenderness and also loss of volume of the baked pastry. I n the present report, comparisons of breaking strengths of pastries made with various plastic fats will be referred to as relative breaking strength rather than relative shortening value. This change is well indicated, as will be pointed out, because other properties of pastry have an influence on the shortness or tenderness that appears to be independent of the breaking strength. Another reason is that fats and oils generally are referred to as shortenings, which may imply that they are the only factor in the control of shortness, although, as pointed out, a t least two other factors are of major importance.
HE relative merits of a variety of edible plastic fats have received considerable attention during recent years, probably to some extent as a result of unusual economic conditions. Some of the reported conclusions were based on comparisons of the breaking strengths of standard-size specimens of simple pastries in which these fats were used as shortenings. Shortening as applied to crackers, biscuits, and cakes was defined by Davis (3) in terms of breaking strength, and he designed a device for its measurement. More recent work on the application of the breaking-strength method indicated some superiority of lard in plain pastry (4) and showed variations among different types of lard, such as prime-steam, open-kettle, and hydrogenated lard (1). The experimental method for preparing test specimens used the fats a t 10" C . (50' F.) or lower; although this temperature is satisfactory for some lards, it is much less than is recommended for hydrogenated vegetable oils. Investigations of the general uses of lard and of the application of lard in cake baking (6') suggested that it can be utilized in cakes when sufficient changes are made in formulation and methods of mixing the batters. General studies of individual and composite samples of lard failed to reveal definite correlation between chemical constants and experimental cooking results (7). It has been found, however, that soft lard may be objectionable from the standpoint of consistency a t room temperature and may be undesirable in odor and flavor. Excessive smoking makes such lard unsuited for frying. Other literature ( 2 , 9) summarizes the properties and uses of lard, particularly in the light of the economic advantage enjoyed by it from 1932 to 1935. Because most of the data of the past relating to the direct
Plastic Shortening Fats Manufacturers and commercial consumers of plastic shortening fats recognize a number of apparently unrelated prop1155
1156
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CFIEMISTHY
erties that must be considered in the clioice of a product for a specific purpose. Frying fats must not smoke a t the operating temperature and must have low absorption, and cake shortening must have good creaming and emulsifying properties. Special cake shortenings, which have been introduced within the past four years, have been responsible for signifioant improvement in bakery practice. Obviously, a generalpurpose shortening for household use should incorporate the most desirable properties required for frying, general shortening, and cake making. Comparisons of lard and hydrogenated cottonseed oil by the relative breaking-strength method ( I ) have rated the latter as low as 72.9 per cent of the former. Such evaluation is possible by the clioice of a soft lard, a suitable recipe, and a sufficiently low mixing temperature. These and similar comparisons of shortening fats must be accepted at face value but mnst not be construed as criteria of general excellence of the products. Individuals, in subjective tests, may have difficulty in deciding about the relative breaking strengths of specimens of 100 per cent difference. In addition, the preference for pastry specimens does not appear to be closely related to breaking strength, provided the pastries are within a range of shortness acceptable for table use.
VOL. 29, NO. 10
be done with caution to prevent undue loss of a true pastry richness and texture. Bakery experience indicates (6) that a fat of firm texture is superior to a soft fat for pastry shortening. The natuic of lard is dependent on a number of factors, which include the selection of the fat as back, leaf, etc.; the method of rendering; and the feeding histories of the animals from which the fats are obtained. The name, “lard,” which originated in ancient Rome, does not imply any specification beyond the biologica1 source of the fat. The plastic vegetable oil shortenings, which are mostly hydrogenated cottonseed oil or compounds of cottonseed oil with vegetable stearins, are processed under control to ensure uniformity. A variety of products is offered to the trade, each designed for the specific requirements of the commercial coiisumer. Other products, intended for all-purpose shortening and frying, are available for household use. In general, these shortenings are more firm a t ordinary kitchen or bakery temperatures than are the average lards. The consistelicy or plasticity of a shortening may be varied by a number of methods. The result of an increase in the plasticity is to lower the breaking strength of a pastry test specimen. The gain in tenderness may, however, be more
FIGURE 1. LOAFVOLUMERELATIOKB The shortometervalues of lards vary over a wide range; some are better and some poorer than those of the hydrogenated vegetable oil shortenings. Pastries made with very softshortenin@,evenin reduced amounts, tend towards greasiness in the baked products. Decrease in the amount of shortening, to minimize greasy cliaracter of the pastry, must
than offset by occurrence of greasiness or other undesirable properties. Among the sveilable methods for increasing plasticity are limitation of the degxe of hydrogenation or addition of cottonseed or other vegetable oil, increase in the temperature at which the shortening is used, and simple mechanical working of the shortening preliminary to use.
OCTOBER, 1937
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
The application of any of these methods to hydrogenated vegetable oil shortenings may easily result in a lower breaking strength than that of the most plastic lard.
1157
show the practical equivalence of the average firm lards 3, 5, and 6 with the vegetable shortenings, and indicate the desirability of a firm shortening for pastry.
Relative Breaking Strengths Experimental comparisons of plastic fats were carried out by a modification of the method referred to (4): Mixing was done with a household type mechanical mixer, equipped with pastry knife and revolution counter. Flour, salt, and fat were mixed for 136 revolutions (2 minutes) with interruptions at 34 and 85 revolutions for scraping t h e sides and bottom of the mixing bowl. Flour and fat were used at the same temperature. Water at 7.2" C. (45" F.) was added in one portion, incorporated by five turns with a spatula, and the dough was mixed for 51 revolutions. Extrusion of the dough as a ribbon, slightly more than 0.317 cm. (0.125 inch) in thickness and 5.0 cm. (2.0 inches) wide, followed by pressing of the strip t o exact thickness between polished steel plates, was found more desirable than the usual rolling operation. The extrusion apparatus consisted of a rectangular metal box, 2.5 X 5.0 X 40 cm. (1 X 2 X 15.7 inches), fitted with a die at one end and with a variable speed piston. The test pieces were marked out on the pressed stri with a special cutter, 3.81 X 6.35 cm. (1.5 X 2.5 inches), antbaked in units of ten pieces. This procedure eliminated shrinkage and permitted easy separation of the baked wafers. Four such strips were made from each dough mix. Advantages of this procedure were more uniform breaking strengths, elimination of the use of additional flour to prevent sticking, and the ability to test doughs of a tacky nature. The stri s of test wafers, in groups of four, were baked on a highly pergrated sheet at 204' C. (400"F. * 5") for 22 minutes in an oven equipped with air circulation. The perforated sheet made it unnecessary to prick the wafers to prevent blistering. The baked wafers were separated and cooled for one hour at 21.1' C. (70' F.), and the breaking strengths were measured at 21.1" C. Two dough mixes, consisting of four strips of ten wafers each or a total of eighty s ecimens, were found adequate for reliable averages. This numier was the minimum used for any one average, and many tests included several times the minimum. The reliability of the data obtained with the test method is illustrated by the following typical examples :
TABLEI. COMPARATIVE BREAKING STRENGTHS WITH VEGETABLE SHORTENINGS AND LARDS
Vegetable Shortening Hydrogenated cottonseed oil:
Fat Hydrogenated cottonseed oil 1 Vegetable stearin-vegetable oil compound Lard 1
226 218 197
Pearson's CoeffiError cient of of VariaMean tion
StandStandard ard Deviation Davisof tion Mean 24.6 23.9 23.1
Probable
2.8
1.9
2.7 2.6
1.8 1.7
10.9
11.0 11.7
The following recipes were followed for most of the comparisons : A
B
100.0 60.0 31.25 2.5
100.0
62.6 31.25 2.5
A is a representative domestic recipe, B is a recipe well adapted to bakery practice; they differ only in the amount of shortening.
Comparison of Vegetable Shortenings and Lards All the fats used in the comparisons in Table I were nationally distributed products. They were mixed according to formula A a t 21.1 o C. Lards 1 and 4 were quite soft a t 21.1 o C., but lard 2 was very firm and tough. Lards 3, 5 , and 6 and all the vegetable shortenings were of suitable texture and plasticity a t this temperature. The wafers made with lard (except 2) were more greasy than those with the vegetable shortenings. A tendency towards smoking of the nearly completely baked lard wafers was noted. These observations
Lard 1
Relative Breaklng Strength,
Bfeaking Strength, Grams 197 304 235 179 216 214
%
100.0 154.1 119.2 90.9 109.7 108.8
20 1 226 3 114.7 4Q 118.8 2 232 115.1 5 44 I 3 227 6 Vegetable stearinvegetable oil oom110.8 pound 218 a These lards gave rather wide variations in breaking strengths among different samples of the same brand,
Variation of Breaking Strengths Several methods of changing the plasticity of fats, thereby decreasing the breaking strengths of pastry test wafers, are illustrated in Table 11. These procedures include an increase in the temperature of use of the shortening, the addition of an edible oil to the shortening, a similar effect by limitation of the degree of hydrogenation of a vegetable oil shortening, and changes in texture and plasticity as results of mechanical manipulation of the fat. TABLE 11. EFFECTOF SPECIAL TREATMENT ON COMPARATIVE
BREAKING STRENGTHS WITH VEGETABLE SHORTENINGS AND LARD Formula 0
Hvdroeenated -cottonseed oil: 1
Mean Breaking Strength of 80 Tests Gram;
Relative BfeakBTeakIng 1ng Strength, Strength, % Grams
1 1Aa 8Ab
8B C 16d 16 Lard: 1 2 2AS
Mixing Temp. c. ( 0 F.)
Breaking Strength arams
Relatjve Breaklng Strength
%
B B B B B B A
15.6(6O) 35.0(95) 15.6(60) 16.6(60) 15.6(60) 21.1(70) 21.U70)
223 178 212 185 162 91 127
133.4 106.8 127.0 110.9 97.0 54.5 76.1
B B
15.6(60) 15.6(60) 15.6(60)
167 288 174
100.0 172.4 104.1
B
a 1A was 1 mixed with the pastry knife in the meobanioal mixer for 600 revolutions at 21.1" C. and then aged for 2 hours at 15.6O C. b SA was 80 narts of 1 and 20 Darts of cottonseed oil treated as in 1A. c SH isas 70 parts of 1 and 30 p a r t s of cottonseed oil treated as ill la. d 16 was a cottonseed oil product hydrogenated t o aless degree than 1. e 2.4 \\as 80 parts of lard 2 and 20 parts of cottonseed oil treated as In 1A.
Comparisons with Modified Lards Comparative cooking and baking tests with lard have largely been confined to samples whose variation in properties can be attributed to the origin and preparation of the fat. Congealing point and plasticity have been the two most prominently mentioned properties. Table I11 is based on two series of modified lards in which the variations were due to additions of animal stearin or of vegetable stearin. The vegetable stearin was hydrogenated cottonseed oil (iodine number 8.6) and the animal stearin was hydrogenated lard (iodine number 3.5). The lard was melted, and melted stearin was added in the proportions indicated. The liquids were cooled with agitation until clouded and then refrigerated a t 7.2" C. (45"F.). ControI samples of lard were simultaneously treated in the same manner. After 2 days of refrigeration, the fats were brought t o 21.1' C. and tested in pastry wafers.
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGl:NEERING CHEMISTRY
1158
TABLE 111. COMPARATIVE BREAKING STRENGTHS WITH MODIFIED LARDS Relative Breaking Breakin Formula Strength Strengtf: Urams % 100 0 B 139 100.0 1 99 Ve&Qible B 147 106.7 B 2 98 146 Vegetable 105.1 B 96 171 6 Vegetable 123.0 90 10 B 223 160.4 Vegetable B" 90 10 188 136.1 Vegetable B 99 142 1 Animal 102* 1 B 98 148 2 Animal 106.6 B 166 96 6 Animal 119.3 B 90 10 Animal 217 166.0 B" 189 10 90 Animal 136.0 100 0 A 160 100.0 99 164 1 Veg&ble A 102.4 172 2 A 98 107.6 Vegetable 96 188 117.6 6 A Vegetable 246 163.8 90 10 A Vegetable 197 123.0 90 10 Vegetable A" 161 100.6 99 1 Animal A 168 106.0 2 Animal A 98 186 116.1 96 6 Animal A 241 150.8 90 10 Animal A 123.9 90 10 Animal A" 198 The formula was adjusted 80 that it contained the same amount of actual lard 88 the control formulas. Fat Compn. Lard Stearin
Type of Stearin
These two series demonstrate the important relation of firmness and plasticity of fats to the breaking strengths of the test wafers. The adjusted formula controls are included to show that the increase in breaking strengths was not due to reductions in the amounts of original lard in the doughs;
Vegetable Oil and Lard Oil Compounds Comparisons of the shortening properties of oils of vegetable and animal origin were made with compound fats of the oilstearin type in which a vegetable oil was progressively replaced with lard oil. The method of preparation of these samples was essentially the same as described above for modification of lard. Plasticities were adjusted, by slight variations in the stearin content, to approximate equality a t 21.1' C. The stearins were those already described. The vegetable oil was nonwinterized cottonseed oil. The lard ail was a practically neutral, edible grade. Formula B was followed and the mixing temperature was 21.1' C. The average and relative breaking strengths of these wafers were in as close agreement as was expected in view of the slight differences in the plasticities of the fats. The outstanding result is the lack of apparent difference in the baking properties of the two oils when used in compounds.
VOL. 29, NO: 10
tion of the ability of individuals to detect differences in the tenderness of the pastries. Two shortenings, a well-known hydrogenated vegetable oil product and a premium lard, were used in the comparisons, which were made with wafers of plain pastry and with complete pies.
Plain Pastry Wafer Comparisons The wafers used in these comparisons were prepared by a slight modification of recipe A, using a soft lard which produced low breaking strength. The method of baking, cooling, and testing was identical with that described. Halfsections from the breaking strength determinations were used in the eating comparisons, individuals being requested to give their opinions on shortness and their preferences as to eating quality. Seventy-eight individual or thirty-nine duplicate opinions were obtained in this series.
Av. breakina streneth. grams Relative breaking itrenith % Selections a5 more short, $ Preference, %
Shortening in Wafers Hydrogenated cottonseed oil Lard 236 146 161 100 14.1 77 0 66.4 37.2
Of the individuals, 8.9 per cent were unable to detect any difference in shortness and 6.4 per cent were unable to decide on a preference. The data from this series show that relative breaking strengths can be determined to a degree of sensitivity considerably beyond that obtained by individual eating-test evaluation. Preference did not appear related to shortness, either by individual selection or by relative breaking strength, because other factors, such as flavor, texture, and greasiness, influenced general preference. The personal element was found to be important in guiding preference. Two individuals evaluated each wafer, each using a half-section from the breaking strength test. I n 54 per cent of these casea the two individuals failed to coincide in their preferences.
Plain Pastry Comparisons with Complete Pies A more comprehensive series of comparisons of plain pastries was made with filled pies, formGlated according to the relative breaking strength ratios of the hydrogenated cottonseed oil and lard shortenings: A
B
C
176
237
100
136
Wnt,nr
BREAKING STRENGTHS WITH TABLE IV. COMPARATIVE . VEGETABLEAND LARDOILSIN COMPOUNDS -Fat Stearin
Compn.Cottonseed oil
Lard oil
Type of Stearin
0.0 18.7 38.1 55.6 73.4 0.0 18.7 38.1 56.6 73.4
Vegetable Vegetable Vegetable Vegetable Vegetable Bnimal Animal Animal Animal Animal
Breakin Strengtf Grams
27.8 26.2 23.8 26.9 26.6 27.3 26.2 23.8 26.9 26.6
72.7 66.1 38.1 18.5 0.0
72.7 66.1 38.1 18.5 0.0
233 236 229 216 230 212 209 218 216 210
Relative Breaking Strength
% 111.6 112.9 109.5 103.0 110.1
101.4 100.0 104,2 103.2 100.4
Relation between Eating Preference and Relative Breaking Strength Correlation was attempted between the expressed preference of individuals for plain pastries and the relative breaking strengths of these products. These tests also gave an indica-
Recipes A and B were designed from those found in widely used cookbooks and are identical except for the kind of shortening. The lard was a comparatively soft product which permitted a reduction in the amount used of 25 per cent but still gave relative breaking strength values approximately equivalent to those obtained with the hydrogenated cottonseed oil. Recipe C represents this adjustment in the amount of shortening. The doughs were prepared by the method described above and were immediately rolled to uniform thickness. Baking was done as 6-inch (15.2-cm.) shells, each of which weighed 3 ounces (85 grams) before baking. After cooling, the shells were filled with a cold type of vanilla cream that had been shown to produce very little change in the pastry shells. Pies in groups of three were distributed among families totaling 296 adult members. Each individual rendered a report on his selection of order of shortness and of preference.
OCTOBER, 1937
Separate ratings were made of the portion of the crust in contact with the filling and of a portion not in contact with the filling. These samples were designated “filled” and “plain,” respectively, in Table V. It was difficult to choose between the shortness of pastries A and B, which differed widely in relative breaking strength but were similar in quality. Like difficulty was not experienced in choosing between pastries B and C, which were quite different in quality. A great apparent difference in shortness was discernible between pastries A and C , which were equivalent in relative breaking strength but different in quality. There appeared to be no significant difference in the preference for pastries A and B, as judged by their placements in first and second choices. Pastry C was rated low in preference, even though it had a relative breaking strength equivalent to that of A. The poor acceptance of C was due to the facts that it was considered less short and that it lacked the quality associated with this type of pastry. It is evident that a n arbitrary adjustment of the amount of shortening in a pastry, in order to produce a breaking strength numerically equivalent to that of some other pastry, may not result in an equally satisfactory or acceptable product.
AND PREF~RENCE DATAOF CRUSTSOF TABLE V. SHORTNESS FILLED PIES
Recipe A Fjlled B Filled C Filled A Plain B Plain C Plain
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
--
Individual Selection of Shortness First Second Third First
%
%
37.5 57.1 5.4 32.1 62.2 5.7
51.4 30.7 17.9 56.8 26.3 16.9
% 11.1
12.2 76.7 11.1 11.5 77.4
PreferenceSecond Third
%
%
%
45.3 47.3 6.8 46.6 44.6 9.1
44.9 37.8 20.6 42.6 38.5 18.6
9.8 14.9 72.6 10.8 16.9 72.3
Detailed analysis of the individual reports, from which Table V was compiled, showed that between 70 and 71 per cent of the individuals preferred the pastry they believed to be most short. This finding means that shortness, as evaluated by eating tests, is an important factor in making a preference. Such shortness is an apparent value rather than a numerical breaking strength that may be mechanically determined.
Results with Plastic Fats as Cake Shortening Cake shortening has generally been limited to butter and hydrogenated vegetable oils. Butter has been considered good because of its long usage and its ability to impart a special flavor. The hydrogenated vegetable oil products have established themselves because of their excellent performance and because their bIand flavor assists in gaining the full effect of flavoring agents. Both shortenings produce fine results when used in the recipes found in reliable cookbooks. Lard has not become important as a cake shortening because of its deficient creaming and emulsifying properties, although it has been used with butter. Attempts have been made to demonstrate the adaptability of lard for cake shortening (6). Modifications of both recipes and procedures have been necessary in order to approximate the results expected with recognized products. A “modified conventional method” (6) is fairly effective, although more cumbersome and time consuming than is desirable. Cakes made with lard have a characteristic flavor that may or may not be desirable, depending on personal preference. Direct comparisons of a hydrogenated cottonseed oil shortening and a lard were made in several representative cake recipes. The lard was one that had produced very low breaking strengths when used as a plain pastry shortening.
The following tabulation gives the ingredient composition of the several batters. All units are in grams except where otherwise indicated.
Flour Fat Sugar Egg white Egg yolk Milk Salt
Household Recipesa B C D 284 200 227 100 100 100 227 227 340 112 112 90 {None 112 None) 170 488 170 10 2 1 4
A 508 220 600
1853
Baking powder, teas- oons 8 Total gatch 2060 Weight per teaspoon ofbakingpowder 257
‘ 2 873
3 752
2 953
436
251
476
Bakery Reci eeb
E
P
454 227 454
647 227 616
227 227
{?%e 214
7
None
7
6.5
A is the modified conventional plain cake mentioned above; B is a recipe of a cake flour manufacturer: C is a recommendation of a manufacturer of animal fat shortening. D is a reaipe of a manufacturer of hydroa
genated vegetable oil shorteniig. b E is a typical commercial poundcake recipe; F is a oommercial white layer cake recipe.
AU mixing operations were carried out according to the specific directions of the individual recipes. The householdtype cakes were baked in a modern household gas range at 177” C. (350’ F.). The bakery-type cakes were baked in zb plant oven a t 177” C. The loaf volumes of the finished products were smaller in all cases when lard was used as shortening than when the hydrogenated vegetable oil product was used. It may be significant that the baking powder ratios in lard recipes A and C were nearly double those in general recipes B and D. The loaf volume relations are illustrated in Figure 1, selected from two household recipes and one bakery-type recipe: A1 and A2 represent sections of cakes made by the A recipe with hydrogenated cottonseed oil and lard, respectively, and of the same unbaked weight (350 grams). A3 represents a section of a cake made with the A2 batter but with the weight of batter increased to 400 grams in order to produce a loaf volume equivalent to that of Al. B1 and B2 show sections of cakes made by the B reci e with hydrogenated cottonseed oil and lard, respectively, a n t of the same unbaked weight (400 grams). B3 represents a section of a cake made with the B2 batter but with the weight of batter increased to 450 grams so as to produce a loaf volume equivalent to that of B1. E l and E2 represent sections of commercial-type poundcakes made by the E recipe with hydrogenated cottonseed nil and lard, respectively. These cakes were of the same unbaked weight (454 grams).
Literature Cited (1) Cawood, J. F., IND. ENQ.CHIM.,26,988(1934). (2) Cline, J. A., Mo. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bull. 335 (1934).
(3) Davis, C.E., J. IND.ENG.CHIM.,13,797(1921). (4)Fisher, J. D., Ibid., 25,1171 (1933). ( 5 ) Glabau, C. A., Bakers’ Weekly, 91,No. 3, 47; No. 4, 43; No. 5, 43; No.6,41; No. 7,49 (19361. (6) Inst. Am. Meat Packers, Dept. Sci. Research, “Lard,” 1934. (7) Iowa State Coll. Agr. and Mechanic Arts, Rept. on Agricultural
Research, p. 147 (1934).
(8) Mills, Geo., Bakers‘ WeekZy, 87,No.10,30 (1935). (9) Nelson, P. M., and Lowe, B.,“Use Lard as a Household Fat.” Iowa State Coll. Extension Service. 1932. RECEIVED June 12, 1937.
Correction In the paper on “Extrusion Qualities of Rubber,” by Arthur H. Nellen, which was published in the August, 1937, issue, two errors should be corrected: Column 6, TabIe I, page 887, end column 4 of the table in the first column of page 888 should have the heading “Gz/M1’instead of “Original.”
