October, 1933
IXDUSTRIAL AND EKGINEERING CHEMISTRY
this evidence a further investigation of the hulls was undertaken. I n the second series the hull extract was incorporated with the vitamin G(B2) basal diet a t a 20 per cent level. Eight rats were given this diet. To eight litter mates of these, carefully matched as to weight and sex, were given 2.4 AVERaGE RESULTS O F FEEDING COTTONSEED PRODCCTS WITH VITAMING ( B 2 ) - - D ~ ~ 1 cDIET 1~x~
TABLE11.
R.ATS 7 13 15 16 8 8
GAININ WEIGHTAPTER: 5 weeks 8 weeke Grams Grams 0 3 3 8% cottonseed oil -3 -6 2.4 grams cottonseed meal per week 15 2s 2 7 10% hull extract 20% hull extract 11 17 2.4 grams hiill bran per week 23 32 SUPPLEMEKT
1171
per cent level) made an average gain of 10 grams. The second group (receiving hull bran) a t 5 weeks had made an average gain of 23 grams; at' the end of 8 weeks the gain was 32 grams. The cottonseed hulls are as good a source of vitamin G(B2)as the cottonseed meal. LITERATURE CITED
(1) Bourquin, A , , and Sherman, H. C., J . Am. Chem. Soc., 53, \?OF EAHHLEy FOOD 3501-6 (1931). PER R . ~ T (2) Chase, E., and Sherman, H. C . , I b i d . , 53, 3506-10 (1931). Grams (3) Clark, E. P., J . Bid. Chem., 78, 159-66 (1928). 26 (4) Honeywell, H., and Dutcher, R. E., J . Sutrition, 3 , 4 9 (1931). (5) Osborne, T. B., and Mendel, L. B., J . Biol. Chem., 45, 277-88 (1921). 23 22 (6) Sherman, H. C., and Campbell, H. L., I b i d . , 60, 5-15 (1924). 30 (7) Sherman, H. C., and Whitsitt, M. L., Ibid., 90, 153-60 (1931). (8) Stevens, Henry, Oil & Fat I n d . , 7, 215-16 (1930).
gi
grams a week the 'Ulextracted which amount Was b e t w e n 5 and 6 per cent of the food intake. At the end of 5 m-eeks the first group (receiving the hull extract a t 20
RECEIVED .Ipril 20, 1933. Presented before t h e Division of Agricultural a n d Food Chemistrv a t t h e 85th Meeting of t h e American Chemical Society, Washington, D C ,-March 26 t o 31,1933.
Shortening Value of Plastic Fats JENNIE D. FISHER,Institute of American Meat Packers, Chicago, Ill.
M
point, and plasticity as factors. 0 D E R K technology A standard procedure has been worked out in L a n g m u i r (5) d i s c u s s e s the has made available a determining the relative shortening value of f a t s greater covering power of unwide a s s o r t m e n t of by means of the Shortometer such that the resaturated fatty acids, a property e x c e l l e n t cooking fats, each sulting data meet the requirements of statistical significant in the present conwith characteristic merits. The measuremenis as to scope and validity of the nection. Harkins (4)speaks of discriminating h o u s e w i f e o r the adhesive properties imparted baker will increasingly s e l e c t mean. by double b o n d s , thus giving fats with a view to adapting the The large range of excellent cooking f a t s now insulating strength to the layers special merits of each to the reavailable makes desirable a revaluation of their of fat separating the gluten. I n sult sought. This calls for a qualities for the rarious purposes of cookery. the present study the only conrevaluation for cookery purposes The present study was directed at one of these stant among those determined on of available, edible fats, especially since much of the present the fats used which coordinated qualities-i. e., shortening value in plain p i e literature of the subject dates with shortening value was, poscrust. CTse of 41 and 44 per cent of f a t , Jive from the war period a t which sibly, the c o n g e a l i n g p o i n t . lards, two hydrogenated cottonseed oils, a hydrotime emergency considerations Shortening value in the present genated lard, a n animal stearin-vegetable oil prevailed in such investigations. state of our knowledge must recompound, and an all vegetable oil compound, The present study had for its main a matter of direct test. purpose the determination of the The present study sought to showed shortening ealues as determined by the relative value of some common a p p r o a c h t h e problem f r o m Bailey Shorlometer which coordinated approxifats for a particular use-i. e., as the standpoint of ample statismately with their congealing points. FVhen a shortening in the making of tical scope a n d c r i t e r i a . A amounts of f a t were used i n fhe formula in the plain pastry or pie crust. While thousand pie crust wafers were inverse order of their shortening z'alue, the the action of a shortening agent b r o k e n for each fat, and the is understood, the relation bevalidity of the average of these breaking strengths came out approximately the tween the shortening power and tests was d e t e r m i n e d by the same. the inherent properties of a fat application of the usual measis not understood. Shortness is urements such as the frequency the quality of cookies, crackers, and pie crust which makes distribution, median, mode, arithmetic and geometric mean, them tender and easy to break or crush. A mixture of flour, average and standard deviation, probable error, and Pearson's water, and salt bakes to a hard mass, owing to the adherence coefficient of variation. Fisher's "t'was used to test the and continuity of the gluten in the flour. When a fat is significance of the difference between any pair of means being added, being immiscible JTith the other constituents, it compared. spreads and separates the gluten particles. The resulting TESTSOF SHORTESISG\'ALCE shortness is measured in a delicate breaking machine, the Shortometer, first introduced by Davis (1-3), and since SERIESI. The following fats were used in the first experiimproved, especially by H. C. Bailey. ment: a refined lard, a partially hydrogenated lard, an With reference to the relation between the action of a animal stearin-vegetable oil compound, and two partially shortening agent and its inherent properties, Platt and hydrogenated cottonseed oils. Fleming (6) enumerate viscosity and surface tension, melting Sufficient materials to carry out a complete set of tests for I
I N D U S T R I A L A pv' D E N G I K E E R I K G C H E M I S T R Y
1172
Vol. 25, No. 10
Value o f Idervals. 2 50
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FIGURE 2. FREQUENCY CURVEFOR HYDROGENATED LARD
FIGURE 1. FREQUENCY CURVEFOR REFINEDLARD one experiment were purchased and stored a t -6.7" C. (20" F.). The fats TTere stored in their own containers and the flour in sealed cans to prevent change in moisture content. One test ( h e n t ' y individual samples) on each of the fats was made, in the same order of succession, each day.
Table I1 gives some illustrat i v e statistical measurements
250
used to evaluate the reliability of the data. There are certain empirical rules which are generally 175 u s e d t o determine whether a s e r i e s of determinations f a l l s 11. 737.1 It, 779.6 w i t h i n t h e proper limits and '25 w h e t h e r t h e average of the IO0 series is a representative figure. These have been applied to the 75 The Kitchen Aid mixing madata (one thousand determinaso chine, with pastry knife operating t i o n s f o r each series) and in a t low speed, mas used to mix the 25 every case the distributions have weighsd flour, salt, and fat for 2 minutes. The water was added closely approached the ideal or during a 5-second interval, and normal distribution. The means mixing was continued for 40 secFIGURE 3. FREQUENCY CURVE FOR ANIMAL Tere found to be representative onds. Flour and salt were used STEARIN-VEGETABLE OIL COMPOUND or characteristic of the series. a t room temperature, but fat and Figures 1 to 5 give the frewater were used as taken from a refrigerator a t 7" to 10' c. (45' to 50" F.). six motions of quency curves for these tests, the intervals in grams being the hand mere used to shape the dough into a preparatory to the rolling process. About thirty rolling motions (all in one expressed on the horizontal and the number of samples falling O n the vertical. direction) were required to reduce the pie crust to the desired On these SERIES11. I n the second study the same five fats were thickness of 0.317 cm. (0.125 inch). An aluminum frame was used to regulate the thickness of the pastry. used and in addition a vegetable stearin-vegetable oil comFor each experiment twenty wafers 3.81 X 6.35 cm. (1.5 X pound. Forty-four parts of fat were used for each 100 parts 2.5 inches) were cut and placed on a tin baking sheet. They were chilled for 10 minutes a t 7" to 10' C. To prevent blistering, of flour. The procedure was otherwise identical in all reeach wafer was pricked with a tool having twelve small blunt spects with series I. needle points. The wafers were then baked for 18 minutes in a The results of one thousand breaking tests on pie crust Magic Chef gas range a t 218' C. (425" F.). made from each of these fats is expressed in Table 111. All After the wafers were removed from the oven, they were placed on a wire rack and cooled for 40 minutes a t room tempera- primary data were tested by the usual statistical measurements but for brevity the frequency curves and statistical ture before being tested on the Shortometer. tables are omitted for the other series. Table I gives the results for each fat. TABLE 111. COMPARATIVE SHORTENING VALUEOF FATS SHORTENING VALUEOF FATS TABLE I. COMPARATIVE (Series 11, pie crust made n i t h 200 grams pastry flour, 88 grams fat, 50 cc. 2p5
zoo
(Series I, pie crust made with 200 grams pastry flour, 82 grams fat, 50 CC. water, a n d 4 grams salt) AVERAGE COMPARATIVE BREAKIXG SHORTENING FAT STRENGTH VALUE Grams % Refined lard 440.6 100 592.3 74 Hydrogenated lard Animal stearin-vegetable oil compound 595.6 74 73 Hydrogenated cottonseed oil 4 602.0 Hydrogenated cottonseed oil 6 625.4 70
water, and 4 grams salt)
FAT Refined lard Vegetable oil compound Hydrogenated lard Hydrogenated cottonseed oil 4 Animal stearin-vegetable oil compound Hydrogenated cottonseed oil 6
dVER4GE COUPARATXVE B R E A K I N G SHORTENING STREXGTH VALUE Grams % 303.6 100 364.6 83 397.5 76 75 403.4 405.4 75 428.4 71
TABLE11. AVERAGEBREAKINGSTRENGTHS AND STATISTICAL MEASURES OF THEIRRELIABILITY h$E.AN
BREAKING STREXGTHOF
FAT Refined lard Hydrogenated lard Animal stearin-vegetable oil compound Hydrogenated cottonseed oil 4 Hydrogenated cottonseed oil 6
1000 TESTS Grams 440.6 592.3 595.6 602.0 625.4
AVERAGE DEVIATIOX 51.6 62.1 63.5 54.4 60.1
STANDARD
STANDARD DEVIATION OF
PROBABLE
ERROR OF
PEAR0ON'B
COEFFICIENT O F
DEVIATION
MEAN
MEAN
VARIATION
61.8 88.2 82.8 72.0 81.1
21.0 27.5 26.8 22.7 24.7
14.2 18.4 17.3 15.0 16.4
14.0 14.8 13.8 11.9 12.5
ili3
P'rotmcr 4.
P"nEQ,!E:r-CY
Cun,.L?
FOH l I u o n O G H x : , T ~ : o
Corro:r-slirroOIL 4
Seiiics 111. Tlie third series of tests was designed to compare several lards with each otlier and with hydrogenated cottonseed oil. Accordingly, two open-kettle leaf lards, the refined steam lard previously used, two addit,ional refined steam lards, and tlie previous Iiydrogewdted cottonseed oil were selected. Forty-four per cent fat was again used a n d the earefully standardized procedure strictly adliercd to. The results are s1iou.n in Table IV, all primary data again Iiavine been tested by tlie usual statistical menaurements.
TAXWIV. CUMPAR~TWE SHO~STENIXG VALUE f%YDROGENATED COWONSEED OIL
OF
Idmi,
AXLI
(Yeiiaa 111, pie muit mads with the xame iuirnula ajl eerie8 I I j
FAT
Reiiiird sLonni lard
L e d lord tlydrnjenated eolronaeed oil 6
Gi'ZVM
%
252.0 845.0 248.9 274.9 2so. 1 360.9
100 i oa 101
01 90
60
It is significant tliat tlie liarder leaf lards were loiver in shortening value than the refined prime steam lards, while the hydrogenated cottonseed oil was lower than the leaf lards. Table V sliows the relationship between certain common constants of the fats studied and the shortening viiliies. TABLE
V. PHYsrCAL
COXSTANT8 Ob' RELATIVE SIrORTENlNG VALUE OB' CERTAIN PkA6TIC YXl"
F*T
While the relative position of the several fats in shortening value is the same in the several series of experiments, the
iirouking strerigtlis in grams are not interchangeable. No effort was made t o control the temperature and humidity of the room and these factors undoubtedly affect the breaking strength of a test wafer. €lowever, temperature and humidity were reasonably iiniform for each series. That is, all t.he fats m r c tested each day and each series was carried out rapidly, but, as the work has extended over the four seasons, tliese pliysieal conditions varied for the different series. In current studies the 44 granis of fat per 100 granis of flom were reduced by the percentage of superior shorteiiing power shown by eacli f a t in excess of tliat of l o w s t shortening power in Table IV. This gave a series of pie crusts of approximately tlie same breaking strength, thus giving strong support to the previous findings. With a single fat, shortness does not vary directly with the amount of f a t used; tlierefore, shortening equivalence by weight cannot be accurately deduced from relative sliortening values determined at one level of fat content. This equivalence is being established experimentally and the general stiidies are being checked v i t h general purpose flour. I,ITERATURECITED (1) Ahlborn, M.,andKramer, M., J . IZomeBwrt., 18,417 !1026). ( 2 ) Davi8.C. E, J. IND. I h o . cam^., 1 3 , i B i (1!?!1).
(8) Donton. Uaird. Yatoiiian. and Godfrey, J . Home Econ.. 13,
54!1(1921).
(4) . . Harkins. W. I>.. Clark. G. I,.. mid Roberts. L. E.. Soc.. 42, 700 (lilZ)).' ( 5 ) Langmuir. Irring, I b L d , 39, 1848 (1917').
J . dm. Clmi.
(6) Platt, W., and Fleming. R. S., IXD.Ere. C~mhr.,15,:190 (1W3). RECE~YED April 17. 1933.
