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Simulated Digestion and Fermentation in vitro by Human Gut Microbiota of Polysaccharides from Bee Collected Pollen of Chinese Wolfberry Wangting Zhou, Yamei Yan, Jia Mi, hongcheng zhang, Lu Lu, Qing Luo, Xiaoying Li, Xiaoxiong Zeng, and Youlong Cao J. Agric. Food Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b05546 • Publication Date (Web): 09 Jan 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on January 9, 2018

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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

Simulated Digestion and Fermentation in vitro by Human Gut Microbiota of Polysaccharides from Bee Collected Pollen of Chinese Wolfberry

Wangting Zhou,† Yamei Yan,‡ Jia Mi,‡ Hongcheng Zhang,§ Lu Lu,‡ Qing Luo,‡ Xiaoying Li,‡ Xiaoxiong Zeng,†,* Youlong Cao‡,* †

College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing

210095, People’s Republic of China ‡

National Wolfberry Engineering Research Center, Yinchuan 750002, People’s

Republic of China §

Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences,

Beijing 100093, People’s Republic of China

*To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel & Fax: +86 25 84396791, E-mail: [email protected] (X. Zeng); +86 951 6886783, E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Cao)

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ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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ABSTRACT

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Digestion and fermentation in vitro of polysaccharides from bee collected pollen of

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Chinese wolfberry (WBPPS) were investigated in the present study. It was found that

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WBPPS was mainly consisted of mannose, ribose, rhamnose, galacturonic acid, glucose,

5

galactose, xylose and arabinose in a molar ratio of 0.38: 0.09: 0.17: 0.64: 0.22: 0.67:

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0.08: 1.03, respectively. WBPPS was not affected by human saliva. The fraction A

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(molecular weight 1340 kDa) of WBPPS was not broken down in simulated gastric and

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small intestinal juices, while the small fraction B (molecular weight 523 kDa) of

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WBPPS was degraded. Moreover, fermentation in vitro revealed that WBPPS could

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significantly enhance the production of short-chain fatty acids and modulate gut

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microbiota composition, via increasing the relative abundances of genera Prevotella,

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Dialister, Megamonas, Faecalibacterium, Alloprevotella and decreasing the numbers of

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genera

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Phascolarctobacterium, Parasutterella, Clostridium sensu stricto and Fusobacterium.

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KEYWORDS: Bee collected pollen from Chinese Wolfberry; Polysaccharides;

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Simulated digestion; Fermentation; Short-chain fatty acids; Gut microbiota

Bacteroides,

Clostridium

XlVa,

Parabacteroides,

2


Escherichia/Shigella,

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INTRODUCTION

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Bee collected pollen, as the male gametophyte of angiosperms and gymnosperms, is

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made up of pollen grain, a small amount of saliva secreted by bees and nectar in plant.1

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It contains abundant nutrients,2,3 such as carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, nucleic

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acids, phenols, fatty acids, minerals and vitamins. Therefore, bee collected pollen is used

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as a dietary supplement for human in USA.4 In past fewer years, there are some reports

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on polysaccharides from bee collected pollen and their biological activities. The

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polysaccharides from bee collected pollen are reported to have immunomodulatory,

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antioxidant and antitumor activities.5-7 In recent years, much attention has been paid on

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the prebiotic activity of polysaccharides, for a growing number of works proved that

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plant polysaccharides could be degraded by gut microbiota and thereby influence the

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host health by their metabolic products.8 For example, the short-chain fatty acids

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(SCFAs) could lower the pH of colon and prevent various diseases.9 Meanwhile, it has

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been reported that polysaccharides could alter the composition of gut community. For

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example, the polysaccharides from Fuzhuan brick tea could significantly simulated the

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growth of Bacteroides and Prevotella10 which are reported to be the key members of gut

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microbiota for hydrolysis of dietary fiber.11 The polysaccharides from mycelial

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Ganoderma lucidum could reduce high fat diet-induced gut dysbiosis which is

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accompanied by the decreased level of endotoxin-bearing Proteobacteria and the ratio of

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Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes (F/B).12 Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharides could contribute to

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the host immune response by increasing the abundances of Bacteroidaceae and

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Lactobacillaceae which are able to promote the secretion of immune factors.13 However,

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the effects of bee collected pollen polysaccharides on gut health have seldom been

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reported. From this standpoint, we aimed to investigate the digestion and fermentation of

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polysaccharides from bee collected pollen of Chinese wolfberry (WBPPS) in the present

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study. Moreover, the possible effects of WBPPS fermentation on production of SCFAs

43

and composition of gut microbiota were evaluated.

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As we known, dietary fiber can be unaltered to transit into the large intestine without

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digestion in oral and gastrointestinal tract of human.14 It is still unknown whether

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WBPPS can be digested by human saliva and simulated gastrointestinal fluids. Thus, the

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first should be done is to provide some information about the digestion of WBPPS. The

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study of carbohydrate digestion in vivo is time-consuming and costly, but there exists

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several in vitro methods for analyzing polysaccharides digestion. Hu et al.15 reported an

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in vitro model to explore the digestion of polysaccharides from the seeds of Plantago

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asiatica L. It was found that the polysaccharide was not influenced in saliva, but

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degraded in gastrointestinal tract. Carnachaned et al.16 applied an appropriated method

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to investigate the effects of simulated gastric and intestinal juices on polysaccharides

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from golden and green kiwifruits. The results elucidated that chemical composition and

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structure of the polysaccharides in insoluble fiber fraction from golden and green

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kiwifruits were largely unchanged. In the present study, therefore, simulated digestion

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model was used to examine whether WBPPS is being broken down in the

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digestive system. Furthermore, the effects of WBPPS on gut microbiota and production

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of SCFAs were investigated via in vitro fermentation by human intestinal microbiota in

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mixed cultures.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

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Materials and Chemicals. Bee collected pollens from Chinese wolfberry were kindly

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provided by the National Engineering Research Center of Wolfberry (Yinchuan, China).

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3-Methyl-1-phenyl-2-pyrazolin-5-one (PMP) and monosaccharide standards (arabinose,

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fucose, galactose, galacturonic acid, glucose, glucuronic acid, mannose, rhamnose,

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ribose and xylose) were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co., Ltd. (St. Louis, MO,

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USA). HPLC grade of acetonitrile was purchased from TEDIA Co., Inc. (Fairfield,

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USA). Gastric lipase, pepsin, pancreatin, trypsin and bile salt were purchased from

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Solarbio Science & Technology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China). Acetic, propionic, n-butyric,

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i-butyric, n-valeric, i-valeric and 2-ethylbutyric acids were obtained from Aladdin

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Industrial Inc. (Shanghai, China). Inulin was purchased from Nanjing Oddfoni

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Biological Technology Co., Ltd. (Nanjing, China). 3,5-Dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) and

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other analytical reagents were obtained from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd.

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(Shanghai, China).

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Preparation of WBPPS. The preparation of WBPPS was carried out according the

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reported method17 with slight modification. Briefly, the powder of bee collected pollens

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from Chinese wolfberry was extracted three times with distilled water (the ratio of water

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to material 20 mL/g) at 85 ℃ for 2 h each, the extract was centrifuged at 4000 rpm for

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20 min. The supernatants were combined and concentrated, the resulting solution was

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mixed with a quadruple volume of absolute ethanol and kept overnight at 4 ℃. The

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precipitates were collected, dissolved in distilled water, dialyzed for 48 h with distilled

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water and lyophilized, affording crude WBPPS.

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Characterization of WBPPS. The contents of total carbohydrates, protein and uronic

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acid were measured by phenol-sulphuric acid, Bradford and m-hydroxydiphenyl assays,

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respectively, according to the reported methods.18 The molecular weight of WBPPS was

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determined by high-performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC) with a

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Shimadzu LC-2A series apparatus (Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto, Japan) equipped with a TSK

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G4000PWXL column (7.8 × 300 mm, Tosoh Crop., Tokyo, Japan) and evaporative

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light-scattering detector (ELSD). Moreover, distilled water was used as the mobile phase

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at a flow rate of 0.8 mL/min and the temperature of column oven was set at 35 ℃. The

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monosaccharide composition of WBPPS was analyzed by HPLC according to the

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reported method of pre-column derivatization with PMP.19

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Simulated Saliva Digestion. The simulated saliva digestion was performed according

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to the reported method15 with slight modification. Firstly, the fresh human saliva was

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collected from a healthy donor who did not take antibiotics last three months. Attentively,

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the donor should rinse his mouth and discard the initial 30 s saliva before collection. The

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collected saliva was centrifuged (4000 rpm, 10 min) immediately and the supernatant

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was used for simulated saliva digestion. The amylase activity of saliva was measured by

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the reported method of van Ruth and Roozen.20 Secondly, WBPPS was dissolved in

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deionized water at a concentration of 8.0 mg/mL. Tube A was the mixture of 4.0 mL

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WBPPS solution with 4.0 mL of saliva, tube B was the mixture of 4.0 mL deionized

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water and 4.0 mL saliva, and tube C was the mixture of WBPPS solution and 4.0 mL

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deionized water. Thirdly, all the test tubes were kept at water bath oscillator (37 ℃, 100

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rpm). During the incubation, sample (2.0 mL) for further analysis (content of reducing

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sugars, content of released monosaccharides, molecular weight of polysaccharide) was

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taken out at 0, 2 and 4 h, respectively, and immersed immediately into a boiling water

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bath for 10 min to inactivate enzyme activity. Each experiment was repeated three times.

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Simulated Gastric Digestion. The simulated gastric digestion was investigated based

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on the reported method15,21 with some modifications. Firstly, gastric electrolyte solution

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(GES, 250 mL) consisting of 775 mg NaCl, 37.5 mg CaCl2·2H2O, 275 mg KCl and 150

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mg NaHCO3 was prepared. Secondly, 37.5 mg gastric lipase, 35.4 mg pepsin and 1.5 mL

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CH3COONa were added to 150 mL GES and the mixture was gently mixed by magnetic

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stirrer for 10 min. The pH of the resulting solution was adjusted to 3.0 by using 0.1 M

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HCl solution, affording the simulated gastric juice. Thirdly, 16.0 mL of 8.0 mg/mL

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WBPPS solution was mixed with 16.0 mL of simulated gastric juice for digestion in

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water bath oscillator (37 ℃, 100 rpm), and the mixture of 16.0 mL distilled water and

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16.0 mL simulated gastric juice was used as blank control. During the digestion, sample

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(4.0 mL) for further analysis (content of reducing sugars, content of released

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monosaccharides, molecular weight of polysaccharide) was taken out at 0, 2, 4 and 6 h,

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respectively, and immersed immediately into a boiling water bath for 10 min to

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inactivate enzyme activity. Each experiment was performed in triplicate.

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Simulated Small Intestinal Digestion. The simulated small intestinal juice was

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assembled according to the method described in the literature15,21 with little modification.

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Firstly, intestinal electrolyte solution (IES, 250 mL), consisting of 1.35 g NaCl, 162.5

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mg KCl and 82.5 mg CaCl2·2H2O, was prepared and the pH of IES was adjusted to 7

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with 0.1 M NaOH solution. Secondly, 20 g of IES, 20 g of pancreatin solution (7%,

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w/w), 40 g of bile salt solution (4%, w/w) and 2.6 mg of trypsin were mixed and the pH

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of mixture was adjusted to 7.5 by 0.2 M NaOH solution, affording the simulated small

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intestinal juice. Thirdly, the pH of gastric digested solution at 6 h of digestion was

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adjusted to 7.0 and mixed with simulated small intestinal juice at a ratio of 10:3. Then,

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the simulated small intestinal digestion was carried out as described above for simulated

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gastric digestion.

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In vitro Fermentation of WBPPS. In vitro fermentation of WBPPS by fresh human

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feces was carried out according to the reported method22,23 with minor modification.

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Firstly, 1.0 g WBPPS or inulin (positive control) was dissolved in 100 mL autoclaved

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basal nutrient growth medium (2.0 g/L yeast extract, 2.0 g/L peptone, 0.1 g/L NaCl, 0.04

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g/L KH2PO4, 0.04 g/L K2HPO4, 0.01 g/L MgSO4·7H2O, 0.01 g/L CaCl2, 2 g/L NaHCO3,

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0.02 g/L hemin, 0.5 g/L cysteine-HCl, 0.5 g/L bile salts, 2.0 mL/L Tween 80, 1,0 mL/L

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1% resazurin solution and 10 µL/L vitamin K) to afford a final concentration of 10.0

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mg/mL (w/v). Additionally, basal nutrient growth medium without any other carbon

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source was used as blank control. Secondly, the fresh human feces were obtained from 3

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healthy volunteers who did not take any antibiotics over 3 months and the fecal slurry

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(10%, w/v) was prepared by suspending feces in sterilized phosphate buffered saline

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(0.1 M, pH 7.2). Thirdly, 1.0 mL 10% fecal slurry was added to 9.0 mL nutrient growth

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medium containing WBPPS or inulin in 25 mL flask, and the fermentation was then

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carried out in an Anaero Pack system (Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co., Inc., Tokyo, Japan)

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at 37 ℃. The samples at fermentation of 0, 6, 12 and 24 h were taken out for further

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study. Each experiment was performed in triplicate.

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Determination of Content of Reducing Sugar. The content of reducing sugar was

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measured by the method of DNS with little modification.24 Briefly, 0.5 mL of sample

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solution was mixed with 1.5 mL DNS reagent, and the mixture was heated at 100 ℃

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for 15 min. After cooling, 8.0 mL distilled water was added and the absorbance of

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mixture was determined at 550 nm by spectrophotometer (Shanghai Meipuda Instrument

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Co., Ltd, Shanghai, China). In addition, the calibration curve was created by using

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glucose as standard.

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Determination of pH and SCFAs. The pH value of sample of in vitro fermentation

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was measured by pH meter. The contents of SCFAs were determined by reported

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method25 of gas chromatography (GC) with some modifications. Briefly, Agilent 6890 N

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GC system equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) and HP-INNOWax column

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(30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm) was used. The operation conditions of GC were as follows:

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the flow rate of carrier gas (nitrogen), 19 mL/min; initial column temperature, 100 ℃

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for 1 min, then programmed to 180 ℃ at a rate of 4 ℃/min and held for 4 min; the

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temperature of detector and injection port, 250 ℃; the flow rates of hydrogen, air and

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nitrogen makeup gas in detector, 30, 260 and 30 mL/min, respectively. In the present

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study, the content of lactic acid was determined by lactic acid test Kit (Nanjing

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Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute, Nanjing, China). Each measurement was performed

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for three times.

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Analysis of Gut Microbiota. In the present study, it included 4 groups of in vitro

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fermentation: original fecal slurry group (OR group), fermentation in vitro for 24 h

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without addition any carbon source group (BLK group), fermentation in vitro for 24 h

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with addition of WBPPS (WBPPS group) and fermentation in vitro for 24 h with

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addition of inulin (INL group). The total bacterial DNA of each group was extracted by a

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TIANamp Stool DNA Kit (Tiangen Biotech Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) and all the

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extracted DNA samples were sent to Shanghai GeneSky Biological Technology Co., Ltd

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for analysis of microbiota composition. For high-throughput sequencing, the V4 region

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of 16S rDNA was chosen for amplification and sequenced by Illumina Miseq.

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Furthermore, all the results were based on sequenced reads and operational taxonomic

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units (OTUs). Alpha diversity was analyzed by Mothur. The bar blot of gut community

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composition, principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis were performed

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by R packages (V2.15.3, http://www.r-project.org/). Heatmap was performed using

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HemI 1.0.26

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Statistical Analysis. The experimental data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation

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(SD) of triplicates. The data were evaluated by using SPSS and any difference was

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analyzed by one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan’s

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multiple-range test. P < 0.05 was regarded as statistically significant difference.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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WBPPS was prepared from bee collected pollen of Chinese wolfberry through hot water

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extraction, ethanol precipitation and freeze-drying. The contents of total carbohydrates,

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uronic acid and protein for WBPPS were 61.29 ± 1.59%, 23.98 ± 1.13% and 14.22 ±

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0.26%, respectively. WBPPS was mainly composed of mannose, ribose, rhamnose,

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galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, xylose and arabinose in a molar ratio of 0.38: 0.09:

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0.17:

0.64:

0.22:

0.67:

0.08:

1.03,

respectively,

10


indicating

that

it

was

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heteropolysaccharide. Moreover, two peaks were observed in the HPGPC chromatogram

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of WBPPS (Figure 1a), and the molecular weights for fractions A (major fraction,

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87.02%) and B (13.98%) were 1340.1 ± 45.8 and 523.2 ± 13.7 kDa, respectively.

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Digestion of WBPPS by Saliva. Saliva is the first digestive juice contacting with

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sample and its main content is salivary amylase which can hydrolyze α-(1→4) linkages

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in starch and other carbohydrate.21 In this study, the amylase activity of the collected

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saliva was determined to be 105 ± 4 D units/mL, which is in the range of normal value

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of salivary amylase activity (18-208 D units/mL) reported by van Ruth and Roozen.20 As

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shown in Figure 1b, the retention times and areas of the peaks for fractions A and B did

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not change after treatment by saliva, indicating that the human saliva had no effect on

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digestion of WBPPS. Furthermore, there was not significant difference in the contents of

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reducing sugars before and after treatment by saliva (Table 1), illustrating that WBPPS

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could not be degraded by saliva.

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Digestion of WBPPS under Simulated Gastric and Small Intestinal Conditions. As

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illustrated in Figure 1c, the retention time and area of the peak for fraction A was not

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changed within 6 h under the simulated gastric condition, indicating that fraction A was

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not influenced by simulated gastric juice. However, it was found that fraction B was

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gradually degraded under the simulated gastric condition, and a new peak (fraction C)

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was observed. The molecular weight of fraction C, one degraded product from fraction

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B of WBPPS, was determined to be 2.68 ± 0.36 kDa. Besides, the content of reducing

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sugars was significantly increased due to the simulated gastric digestion (Table 1).

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However, no free monosaccharide was found to be generated from WBPPS during the

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whole process of gastric digestion (Figure 2a). This result is consistent with a previous

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report that the polysaccharide from G. atrum exhibited a little extent of change but no

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free monosaccharide generated throughout the simulated gastric digestion.27 Therefore,

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it was speculated that the glycosidic bonds of fraction B was probably broken under the

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simulated gastric condition. So that the degradation of fraction B did not generate free

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monosaccharide and induce the increment of reducing sugars.

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As presented in Figure 1d, the retention time area of the peak for fraction A did not

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change after the simulated small intestinal digestion, demonstrating that fraction A was

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also not affected by simulated small intestinal juice. But it was found that fraction C was

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shifted to fraction D (molecular weight, 1.27 ± 0.03 kDa) due to simulated small

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intestinal digestion. Furthermore, the data from Figure 2b and Table 1 suggested that

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there was no free monosaccharide released from WBPPS during the simulated small

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intestinal digestion. It provided similar information in accordance with WBPPS

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digestion in simulated gastric juice. So it was concluded that both simulated gastric and

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small intestinal juices had little effect on WBPPS degradation.

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According to the results mentioned above, it was considered that WBPPS could be

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delivered to the colon in a relatively unaltered state, and it was expected that gut

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microbiota could utilize WBPPS. Thus, the fermentation in vitro of WBPPS by fresh

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human feces was investigated in the present study to evaluate possible effects on

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production of SCFAs and gut microbiota due to the fermentation of WBPPS.

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Effects of WBPPS Fermentation in vitro on SCFAs Production. As shown in Figure

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3a, WBPPS was gradually degraded during the fermentation in vitro, indicating that

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WBPPS could be utilized by intestinal microbiota. Meanwhile, as illustrated in Figure

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3b, the pH values of BLK, WBPPS and INL groups significantly declined from 8.93 to

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7.59 (△pH = 1.34), 7.95 to 5.49 (△pH = 2.46) and 8.90 to 4.15 (△pH = 4.75),

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respectively, after 24 h fermentation. The results demonstrated that the addition of

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WBPPS had a greater impact on the pH value of gut environment compared with BLK

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group. In addition, the initial pH value of WBPPS group showed significant difference

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compared with that of blank or inulin group, this was probably associated with the high

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content of uronic acid in WBPPS (23.98 ± 1.13%). Furthermore, the pH value of

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WBPPS group was lower than that of BLK group at the same fermentation time,

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whereas it was higher than that of INL group. It was speculated that the pH value was

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correlated to the level of SCFAs produced during the in vitro fermentation.

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As shown in Figure S1 (supplementary material), 6 kinds of SCFAs were effectively

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separated by GC with HP-INNOWax column and all were detected in WBPPS

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fermentation liquor at 24 h. Through fermentation, the concentration of total SCFAs in

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WBPPS group increased from 6.40 ± 0.32 (Table 2) to 44.97 ± 1.30 mM (24 h), which

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was significantly higher than that of BLK group. The results suggested that WBPPS

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could enhance the production of SCFAs. Compared with BLK group, WBPPS

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significantly enhanced the production of acetic and propionic acids. It has been reported

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that acetic and propionic acids are beneficial for host health. For example, acetic acid

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can be used as the energy source for gut microbiota28 and peripheral tissues.29 Propionic

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acid can lower serum cholesterol level30 and protect against diet-induced obesity.31

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It is interesting to note that the concentration of lactic acid in WBPPS fermentation

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increased from 0.13 ± 0.03 (0 h) to 1.69 ± 0.08 mM (6 h), but it then gradually

260

decreased to 0.48 ± 0.05 mM (24 h). It might be that lactic acid produced was converted

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into other SCFAs by human gut microbiota. It has been reported that lactate could be

262

used as a precursor for butyrate biosynthesis in colon.32 Moreover, it was found that the

263

concentrations of i-valeric and n-valeric acids in BLK group were nearly 3.5- and

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1.5-folds higher than those of WBPPS group at 24 h fermentation, respectively. It is

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easy to understand that several amino acids released from proteins can be precursors for

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branched-chain fatty acids synthesis, such as valerate.33 Therefore, the higher

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concentration of valeric acid in BLK group might be resulted from the metabolism of

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protein (without addition of carbon source in BLK group). For INL group, it exhibited

269

the most abundant of lactic and acetic acids and lowest of i-butyric, n-butyric, i-valeric

270

and n-valeric acids at each fermentation time point. In a word, WBPPS could promote

271

the generation of SCFAs with similar effect as inulin.

272

Effects of WBPPS Fermentation in vitro on Gut Microbiota. In the present study,

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the effects of WBPPS on gut microbiota were investigated by in vitro fermentation with

274

fresh human feces and high throughput sequencing analysis. The sequencing analyses

275

included 12 samples (4 groups, each groups repeated 3 times) and a total of 565851

276

usable raw reads were obtained. After the raw reads got filtered and clustered with 97%

277

similarity, 153 ± 29 OTUs per sample were obtained. As exhibited in Figure S2, both

278

sample Rarefaction curve and Shannon curve gradually reached to a stable state,

279

indicating that data size was big enough to reflect mostly biological information in each

280

sample and more reads only produced fewer OTUs. Moreover, the coverage rates for the

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samples all reached over 99.89%, indicating that the data for analysis were reasonable.

282

The alpha diversity of each group is shown in Table 3. For Chao 1 index and ACE

283

index, it could estimate the community richness in samples. For Shannon index and

284

Simpson index, it could estimate the community diversity in samples. According to the

285

data in Table 3, no significant differences existed among BLK, WBPPS and INL groups

286

for community richness. However, the community diversities for INL and WBPPS

287

groups were lower than that for BLK group. The similar result on gut community

288

diversity of Lentinula edodes-derived polysaccharide34 or Chinese yam polysaccharide35

289

was observed. It might be correlated with the fact that WBPPS and inulin could promote

290

the growth of beneficial gut microbiota and inhibit bacterial pathogens.

291

PCA and cluster analysis were used to identify the overall difference of gut

292

microbial community among different treatment groups. As illustrated in Figure 3c, it

293

showed a distinct separation for 4 groups and the first two axes could explain 89.18%

294

variation for different groups. Horizontal axis represents the first principal component,

295

which elucidated 70.08% influence on gut community structure by different treatments.

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On PC1, the distances for OR, WBPPS and INL groups were close, manifesting that the

297

three groups had relative similar community structure compared with BLK group. In

298

addition, WBPPS and INL groups were dispersed in the second principal component,

299

demonstrating that WBPPS and inulin exhibited different impacts on gut microbiota.

300

Moreover, cluster analytical results (Figure 3d) that built by using the Bray-Curtis

301

distance are consistent with the results of PCA, further explaining that WBPPS had great

302

influence on gut microbiota community.

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As shown in Figure 4a, all the groups were mainly consisted of Firmicutes,

304

Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria at the phylum level. Notably, the relative abundances of

305

Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes changed greatly after 24 h fermentation in vitro. It has

306

been reported that the ratio of F/B is closely associated with obesity, because the two

307

bacteria have different efficiency on energy extraction from diet and possess different

308

effects on metabolism of absorbed calories to host.36 In addition, F/B ratio is found to be

309

in high level in obese individuals37 although opposite trend reported.38 As displayed in

310

Figure 4b, WBPPS and inulin reduced greatly the ratio of F/B compared with BLK,

311

which suggested WBPPS and inulin could influence host health by decreasing the ratio

312

of F/B. Besides, Fusobacteria and Actinobacteria were more abundant in BLK and INL

313

groups, respectively. The results indicated that Fusobacteria would be excessive growth

314

without carbon source (in BLK group) and Actinobacteria could be promoted by inulin.

315

As it can be seen from Figure 4c, 45 kinds of main genera were found in human gut

316

feces. Among them, Prevotella, Bacteroides, Faecalibacterium, Dialister, Clostridium

317

XIVa, Megamonas, Alloprevotella, Lachnospiracea

318

Parasutterella, Phascolarctobacterium, Escheriachia/Shigella and Bifidobacterium

319

were the dominating genera in gut. In order to find the primary differences of

320

community composition among OR, BLK, WBPPS and INL groups, those genera that

321

relative abundance below 1% were excluded from the groups. As a result, 16 varieties of

322

genus were selected for comparison. Compared with BLK group, 5 genera (Prevotella,

323

Dialister, Megamonas, Faecalibacterium and Alloprevotella) in WBPPS group were

324

significantly higher (Table 4), while 8 genera (Bacteroides, Clostridium XlVa,

incertae sedis, Parabacteroides,

16


Page 16 of 37

Page 17 of 37


325

Parabacteroides,


Phascolarctobacterium,

326

Clostridium sensu stricto and Fusobacterium) were significantly lower.

Parasutterella,

327

It is obvious that Prevotella in WBPPS and INL groups was far more abundant than

328

that in BLK group, indicating that the addition of WBPPS and inulin could largely

329

promote the growth of Prevotella during fermentation in vitro. It has been reported that

330

high-fiber diet was strongly related to an increase in Prevotella.39 Prevotella potentially

331

contains a set of genes or enzymes for polysaccharide degradation and then the products

332

produced are utilized for the growth of Prevotella. For example, Filippo et al.40 found

333

that genera of Prevotella and Xylanibacter with some certain genes for the hydrolysis of

334

cellulose and xylan were exclusively present in gut microbiota of rural Africa children

335

whose diet rich-in starch, fiber and plant polysaccharide. Fuse et al.41 reported that

336

fructanase, sugar transporter and fructokinase proteins were involved in Fructan

337

utilization by Prevotella intermedia. In addition, the increase of Prevotella influences

338

host health. Kovatcheva-Datchary et al.42 found that the increase of Prevotella could

339

protect against Bacteroides-induced glucose intolerance and increase glycogen storage

340

in some certain individuals. Thus, the increase of Prevotella might regulate blood

341

glucose and reduces the risk of diabetes.

342

Faecalibacterium, like Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, is generally considered as one

343

of the most important bacteria in a healthy individual gut. Many surveys demonstrated

344

that Faecalibacterium prausnitzii was associated with anti-inflammatory activity.43

345

Moreover, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii could produce butyrate which had great benefits

346

for host, such as providing energy for colonic epithelium cells, inhibiting inflammation

17



Page 18 of 37

347

and modulating oxidative stress.44 Compared with BLK group, WBPPS group showed

348

the highest relative abundance of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii. However, it is strange

349

that the concentration of n-butyric acid in WBPPS and BLK groups had no significant

350

difference but i-butyric acid was significantly higher in BLK group. It has been reported

351

that

352

butyryl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase route.45 Fusobacterium, especially Fusobacterium

353

varium, also could synthesize butyrate with amino acids released from protein.46

354

Therefore, the higher concentration of butyric acid in BLK group was probably

355

associated with the increase of the two bacteria. In addition, Dialister is a producer of

356

propionic acid47 and the higher concentration of propionate in WBPPS group might be

357

the consequence of growth of this genus.

Clostridium

XIVa

had

the

ability

to

produce

butyrate

through

the

358

Bacteroides fragilis, belonging to genus Bacteroides, was the most species in BLK

359

group. It could protect against and curve intestinal inflammation.48 However, some other

360

researches reported that enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis was associated with

361

colorectal cancer and inflammatory diarrhea.49,50 Besides, Clostridium XlVa like

362

Clostridium clostridioforme,51 Escherichia/Shigella like Escherichia coli,52 Clostridium

363

sensu stricto like Clostridium perfringens,53 Fusobacterium like Fusobacterium

364

varium54 are usually regarded as opportunistic pathogen. Compared with BLK group,

365

the four species were much less in WBPPS group. Therefore, it concluded that WBPPS

366

could improve the composition of gut microbiota by preventing the growth of pathogen.

367

In conclusion, WBPPS was not digested by saliva, but one small fraction of WBPPS

368

(fraction B) was degraded under simulated gastric and small intestinal conditions. Most

18


Page 19 of 37


369

part of WBPPS could pass through the digestive system without being broken down and

370

reach the large intestine safely. Through fermentation, WBPPS affected the ecosystem of

371

the intestinal tract by promoting the production of SCFAs, especially acetic and

372

propionic acids. Furthermore, it was found that WBPPS could shape the gut microbiota,

373

mainly increasing the genus of Prevotella, Dialister, Megamonas, Faecalibacterium,

374

Alloprevotella and decreasing the genus of Bacteroides, Clostridium XlVa,

375

Parabacteroides,

376

Clostridium sensu stricto and Fusobacterium. The results suggested that WBPPS had the

377

potential to be developed as functional ingredients to improve human health and prevent

378

disease through promoting the gut health.

379

ASSOCIATED CONTENT

380

Supporting information

381

Gas chromatograms of short-chain fatty acids for standard solution and WBPPS after

382

fermentation, samples Rarefaction curves and Shannon curves for each treatment groups

383

AUTHOR INFORMATION

384

Corresponding Authors

385

*Phone: +86-25-84396791. E-mail: [email protected] (X Zeng).

386

*E-mail: [email protected] (Y Cao).

387

ORCID

388

Xiaoxiong Zeng: 0000-0003-2954-3896

389

Funding


Phascolarctobacterium,

19


Parasutterella,


390

This work was supported by Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Industry Integration

391

Project of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (YES-16-0506), Pilot Project by Ningxia

392

Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Science (NKYZ-16-05 and JLC01) and a project

393

funded by the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education

394

Institutions (PAPD).

395

Notes

396

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

397

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398

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27



Figure Captions Figure 1.

High-performance gel permeation chromatograms of WBPPS (a) and

WBPPS after digestion in saliva (b), simulated gastric juice (c) and simulated small intestinal juice (d). Figure 2. High performance liquid chromatograms of PMP derivatives of released free monosaccharides from WBPPS after digestion in simulated gastric juice (a) and simulated small intestinal juice (b). 1, mannose; 2, ribose; 3, rhamnose; 4, glucuronic acid; 5, galacturonic acid; 6, glucose; 7, galactose; 8, xylose; 9, arabinose; 10, fucose. Figure 3. High-performance gel permeation chromatogram of WBPPS after fermented in vitro at different time points (a); pH value fermented at 0, 6, 12 and 24 h, different letters indicating significant difference (P < 0.05) for different group (b); comparison of overall bacterial composition between each treatment groups by PCA (c) and cluster analysis (d). Figure 4. Gut microbial composition at phylum level (a), ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes (b) and Heat map of gut microbial composition at genus level (c).

28


Page 28 of 37

Page 29 of 37


Table 1 Contents of Reducing Sugars in Digested Solutions of WBPPS at Different Time Points under Saliva, Simulated Gastric and Small Intestinal Conditions. Content of reducing sugars a (mg/mL) Samples 0h

2h

4h

6h

Saliva

0.062 ± 0.003 a

0.068 ± 0.004 a

0.066 ± 0.003 a

/

Gastric juice

0.165 ± 0.004 a

0.179 ± 0.008 b

0.183 ± 0.006 b

0.190 ± 0.009 b

0.245 ± 0.003 a

0.264 ± 0.007 b

0.271 ± 0.012 b

0.268 ± 0.013 b

Small intestine juice a

Different letter means significant difference was observed in the simulated digestion process at

different duration.

29



Page 30 of 37

Table 2 Concentrations of SCFAs in Fermentation Solutions at Different Time Points of Fermentation in vitro. SCFAs (mM)

Sample

Acetic acid

Blank

Propionic acid

i-Butyric acid

n-Butyric acid

i-Valeric acid

n-Valeric acid

Lactic acid

Total

a

Anaerobic fermentation time a (h) 0

6

12

24

4.10 ± 0.25 A

7.40 ± 0.24 aB

11.14 ± 0.13 aC

14.81 ± 0.08 aD

WBPPS

12.20 ± 0.53 bB

17.63 ± 0.12 bC

24.13 ± 1.08 bD

Inulin

15.79 ± 0.46 cB

20.15 ± 0.60 cC

26.12 ± 0.83 cD

3.52 ± 0.22 aB

5.24 ± 0.22 aC

6.48 ± 0.09 aD

WBPPS

6.17 ± 0.07 bB

10.86 ± 0.33 cC

16.73 ± 0.29 cD

Inulin

6.52 ± 0.43 bB

9.04 ± 0.36 bC

12.60 ± 0.71 bD

0.36 ± 0.03 bA

0.50 ± 0.03 bB

0.58 ± 0.08 bB

WBPPS

0.12 ± 0.01 aA

0.13 ± 0.01 abA

0.16 ± 0.02 aA

Inulin

ND

ND

ND

1.09 ± 0.02 bB

1.35 ± 0.05 bC

2.84 ± 0.11 bD

WBPPS

0.92 ± 0.04 aB

1.00 ± 0.04 aB

2.78 ± 0.04 bC

Inulin

0.90 ± 0.03 aB

0.94 ± 0.02 aB

1.02 ± 0.05 aC

0.46 ± 0.03 bA

0.93 ± 0.09 bB

1.64 ± 0.11 cC

WBPPS

0.14 ± 0.03 aA

0.21 ± 0.04 aB

0.47 ± 0.02 bC

Inulin

0.10 ± 0.01 aA

0.11 ± 0.02 aA

0.11 ± 0.01 aA

0.20 ± 0.02 A

0.29 ± 0.02 B

0.58 ± 0.04 cC

WBPPS

ND

ND

0.38 ± 0.03 bA

Inulin

ND

ND

0.23 ± 0.04 aA

0.28 ± 0.02 aB

0.07 ± 0.02 aC

ND

WBPPS

1.69 ± 0.08 bD

1.39 ± 0.07 bC

0.48 ± 0.05 aB

Inulin

5.34 ± 0.12 cB

6.64 ± 0.10 cC

7.29 ± 0.23 bD

13.31 ± 0.39 aB

19.53 ± 0.18 aC

26.93 ± 0.12 aD

WBPPS

21.12 ± 0.62 bB

31.08 ± 0.48 bC

44.97 ± 1.30 bD

Inulin

28.66 ± 0.23 cB

36.88 ± 0.32 cC

47.36 ± 1.46 cD

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

1.33 ± 0.06 A

ND

0.85 ± 0.04 A

ND

ND

0.13 ± 0.03 A

6.40 ± 0.32 A

Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) for each SCFA among different groups. Different

capital letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) for each SCFA among different time points. ND is not detected.

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Table 3 Alpha Diversity of Samples among Different Treatment groups. Indexa Groups

a

Chao 1

ACE

Shannon

Simpson

OR

224.9 ± 6.6 b

225.8 ± 9.0 b

2.90 ± 0.04 c

0.139 ± 0.006 b

BLK

180.5 ± 17.2 a

177.7 ± 15.3 a

3.28 ± 0.06 d

0.066 ± 0.006 a

WBPPS

160.7 ± 22.2 a

161.2 ± 18.3 a

2.57 ± 0.03 b

0.163 ± 0.007 b

INL

162.8 ± 5.4 a

160.5 ± 7.9 a

2.14 ± 0.05 a

0.275 ± 0.024 c

The same lowercase letter means no significant difference existed for different treatment groups.

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Table 4 Relative Abundances of 15 Genera in OR, BLK, WBPPS and INL Groups Relative abundance a (%) Genus OR

BLK

WBPPS

INL

Prevotella

38.74 ± 0.93 b

5.42 ± 0.26 a

40.17 ± 1.27 b

56.40 ± 2.87 c

Dialister

4.89 ± 0.11 c

1.51 ± 0.06 a

7.96 ± 0.24 d

2.09 ± 0.07 b

Megamonas

3.00 ± 0.17 a

4.05 ± 0.64 a

6.81 ± 0.53 b

10.96 ± 1.57 c

Faecalibacterium

14.13 ± 0.59 d

0.80 ± 0.21 a

3.64 ± 0.29 c

2.07 ± 0.04 b

Alloprevotella

2.22 ± 0.14 d

0.84 ± 0.03 a

1.12 ± 0.08 b

1.33 ± 0.07 c

Blautia

0.27 ± 0.02 a

0.73 ± 0.26 b

0.36 ± 0.01 ab

2.94 ± 0.31 c

Bifidobacterium

0.08 ± 0.01 a

0.04 ± 0.01 a

0.11 ± 0.02 a

2.92 ± 0.18 b

Bacteroides

18.38 ± 0.62 b

34.04 ± 3.06 d

25.31 ± 0.35 c

11.15 ± 1.97 a

Clostridium XlVa

3.02 ± 0.15 b

11.27 ± 2.24 c

2.96 ± 0.43 b

0.31 ± 0.04 a

Parabacteroides

1.49 ± 0.07 b

7.82 ± 0.99 c

1.89 ± 0.11 b

0.47 ± 0.10 a

Escherichia/Shigella

0.09 ± 0.02 a

6.48 ± 0.30 d

1.88 ± 0.08 c

0.57 ± 0.06 b

Phascolarctobacterium

0.95 ± 0.04 b

2.24 ± 0.29 c

0.89 ± 0.11 b

0.09 ± 0.02 a

Parasutterella

1.00 ± 0.03 b

2.72 ± 0.23 c

0.83 ± 0.03 b

0.37 ± 0.04 a

Clostridium sensu stricto

0.06 ± 0.01 a

4.35 ± 1.50 b

0.09 ± 0.01 a

0.05 ± 0.01 a

Fusobacterium

0.15 ± 0.02 a

7.24 ± 0.30b

0.07 ± 0.01 a

0.04 ± 0.01 a

Lachnospiracea incertae sedis

2.31 ± 0.16 b

0.48 ± 0.06 a

0.63 ± 0.09 a

0.59 ± 0.05 a

a

Different letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) among different treatment groups.

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Figure 1

33



Figure 2

34


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Figure 3

35



Figure 4

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Graphic for table of contents

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Simulated Digestion and Fermentation in Vitro by ... - ACS Publications

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