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SOME HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMISTRY R. E. DAVIS,LANET&CHNICAL HIOHSCHOOL, CHICAOO, ILLMOIS
After you have read what I have to offer you will probably decide that it is neither chemistry nor history, and my only excuse for offering it is based on one of those numerous questionnaires which chemistry teachers are so often asked t o fill out. This one, in seeking to find what teachers wanted in a text-book, found that one of the leadmg aims of chemistry teachers was to give the pupils an appreciation of what chemistry has done to advance civilization. The value of this aim is recognized by the Prize Essay Contest Committee of the American Chemical Society in the choice of the subject, "The Relationof Chemistry to the Enrichment of Life." I believe the best way to secure this aim is to contrast the conditions of the past with those of the present. We usually begin our study of chemistry with a study of oxygen and oxidation. This is the historical method of presentation and in following this procedure we are reliving the experiences of the race. There is a growing tendency on the part of the text-book writers to say less and less about the alchemists and their work. To me this is a very fascinating period in the history of science, and to give our pupils some background we should supply a few facts concerning the alchemist and his search for the Philosopher's Stone and the Elixir of Life. Just when the study of alchemy began is hard to determine, but it is of very ancient origin. Some of the Old Testament stories probably formed the basis for some of these beliefs. The great age of some of the early Biblical characters was taken as proof of the common knowledge of the Elixir of Life by the ancients, and the episode of the Golden Calf was given as proof of the possibility of transmutation, for did not Moses grind the gold to powder and strew it on the face of the waters, thus showing its transmutation into some lighter material? During the unenlightened Middle Ages the belief in alchemy was very general. We are told that Edward I of England invited Raymond Lully to come from Milan to London where he was given very elegant quarters in Tower, and tradition tells us that he made approximately six million pounds sterling in gold and silver from lead, iron, and mercury. From Germany, too, come many stories of the alchemists. On one occasion the celebrated alchemist manufactured several pounds of fine gold in the presence of the court of Rudolph 11, which he presented to the ladies of the court. The Emperor was so impressed that he had a bronze plate set in the wall of the room, where the experiment was performed, to commemorate the event. We have also the story of Seton the Scot. He was travelling in Germany and, in an unguarded moment, he boasted of his ability to transmute metals. The Elector of Saxony seized him and
gave him a guard of honor of forty men to see that he did not escape. The Elector visted him daily and tried to persuade him to make some gold, but Seton was Scotch and stubborn and he refused. Finally, to force him him to action, torture was tried, but still he refused. At last he was rescued by a roving Polish knight, Micheal Sendivogens, but he died as the result of his torture. Sendivogens was an alchemist also and, as the story goes, he married Seton's widow, from whom he secured an ounce of a fine black powder, which was the true Philosopher's Stone. Sendivogens was quite a traveller and he had a magnificaut coach, but he rarely rode in it. He usually rode on a mule with the rabble in his train, while an understudy rode in the coach. We are told that the understudy was kidnapped several times, under the belief that he was Sendivogens and that he carried with him the secret powder. In 1404 the English Parliament made the making of gold and silver a felony, fearing that should its manufacture become general, the existing coin of the realm would become so debased as to be of little value. However in 1455, Henry VI, having become impoverished by the Wars of the Roses, granted a charter to a company to find the stone and manufacture gold so that the Crown could pay its debts. The stories concerning the Elixir of Life are also interesting. More alchemists were credited with being successful in this search than in the other, for it was more difficultto check up on the results. Birth records were not kept, and if the alchemist were old, he claimed extreme age, and if he were young, he claimed that he would never grow old. Ponce de Leon's search for the Fountain of Youth is another aspect of the same idea. Only one story here is sufficient. This concerns the Count Saint Germaiu who claimed to have lived about a thousand years. He often told stories of his adventures with people who had been dead many years, and should any one question the truth of his story, he would turn to his servant and his servant always confirmed it. On one occasion he was relating a t dinner a conversation he had had with Richard I of England in Palestine during the Crusades. Some one expressed surprise and, as usual, he turned to his footman behind his chair and asked him if he recalled the incident. The servant replied, "Yon forget, Sir, I have only been in your service five hundred years." "That is true," said the count, "I had forgotten. I t was a little before your time." Your pupils will always enjoy stories of this sort and will ask as one of mine did, "How could they get away with that stuff?" They got away with it because these ideas are the expression of two very human desires, the desire for wealth and the desire for eternal youth, and these desires are as strong today as ever. Quite recently a fellow citizen of mine paid five thousand dollars for a little machine to turn strips of newspaper
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into twenty dollar bills, and people are buying under-water lots and oil stocks every day. Look, too, a t the schemes for rejuvenation. Only last week I heard a man tell of restoring a woman of sixty-five to the first bloom of youth, by teaching her to breathe properly and, according to the newspapers, gland transplantations are due to take on a new lease of life. The first chemical theoryworthy of the namewas the theory of phlogiston. This was based upon experimental observation. We must remember that a fire was a very much more important thing to our forefathers than to us. Many of our city children, living in apartment buildings, have no experience with any fire except the gas fire in the kitchen range. Their homes are lighted by electricity and heated by steam, and they give little thought to the source of either. Our boy of three hundred years ago had a more intimate knowledge of fire. His only light a t night was a candle or a rush light and his heat was from an open fire. Books were scarce and valuable, and a candle light was a poor light by which to read. He had no evening amusements, and all he could do was to stay a t home and watch the fire. What is more natural than that someone watching the fire should begin to wonder, "What is going on there?" and from what he saw formulate a theory. He sees the flame spurt from the wood and decides that something is leaving the wood, and so he explains the phenomenon by assuming the existence of the new substance, phlogiston. This is one aspect of the scientific method. The fact that the conclusion was reached without sufficient evidence was unfortunate but immaterial since the mind works in a peculiar way. I know a little fouryear old who pesters his father with questions, "What makes it go?" "How does it work?" and when his father tries to evade the issue and says, "I don't know", he asks, "Well, maybe bow?" I think that shows better than any more learned dissertation ever can how our scientific theories are evolved. If we cannot see the mechanism we begin to wonder "Well, maybe how?" and imagine the method of procedure. After Lavoisier's classic experiment with mercury finally overthrew the phlogiston theory, chemistry became a science and began to enter the industries. Unfortunately, i t hasn't gotten very far into a few of them yet. Up to that time the idea that chemistry could ever be useful had seemingly never occurred to any one. It was a harmless pursuit, like collecting b u t t d i e s or postage stamps, but of no particular value. Soon Scheele discovered chlorine and its effect on organic coloring matters, and his active brain saw the value of the discovery. He hoped to see a great industry developed in Sweden, but he was disappointed, for an Englishman, not a Swede, developed the commercial process. A writer in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry describes an event as follows: "An anxious group is gathered on the plains of Holland waiting
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for the coach. For several weeks they have received no cloth from England to bleach. At last the coach arrives and a man alights. I t is a strange story he tells. They are to get no more cloth from England, for he says, 'They mix salt with black manganese and vitriol, and from this comes a foul gas, and by hanging cloth in it, they can do in a few minutes what we require months to do.' " This is one of the earliest examples of the destruction of an old established industry by the application of newly discovered principles. All text-books have something to say of Priestley and his discovery of oxygen. I t is possible t o get reprints of his original articles and they form interesting reading. I n spite of the fact that the discovery of oxygen was the death blow to the theory of phlogiston, until the time of his death Priestley was its firm supporter, and he waged a long and bitter controversy with Dr. John Maclean, of Princeton University, over it. Priestley's account of his tests of the effect of oxygen on animals and on himself is a wonderful bit of description. He tells of its action in supporting combustion and he wonders how it will affect animals, so he tries it on some mice. Having obsewed no evil effects on the mice he decides to try it on himself. He takes a whii and awaits results. There are no evil effects, so he breathes a considerable quantity and sits down and writes of the sensations that a man experiences when he breathes pure oxygen. "The sun seems brighter," he says, "and I fancy there is a feeling of lightness in my breast," and he concludes by saying, 'Who knows but in the future this gas may not become an article of luxury for the rich, but so far only I and two mice have experienced it." We are all familiar with the magazine advertisement which tells us that the ladies of antiquity anointed themselves with olive and palm oils in place of using soap. Have you ever thought of what happens when these oils are spread in thin 6lms exposed to light and a moderate degree of heat? Rancidity develops, and these ladies were possibly more agreeable to the sense of sight than to the sense of smell. As people became more finicky, attempts were made to cover these and other odors by the use of perfumes and scented unguents. This is the origin of the perfume industry, which is the leading chemical industry of France. Soap could not become cheap until there was a cheap source of alkali, and this did not come until France, blockaded by the Allies, was forced to offer a prize for a method of producing alkali from products native to the country. As we all know the LeBlanc process was the result of this. France did not profit much from this, for again it was England that captured the industry. The introduction of the process into England was not without its difficulties. The unrestrained evolution of hydrogen chloride killed off vegetation and dissolved the mortar from the walls of neighboring buildings, until absorption towers were provided which absorbed
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the gas in water and ran the solution into the canal. All was well for a time and then the boatmen in the canal found the rivets and nails dropping out of their boats. At this psychological moment Deacon perfected his catalytic method for the preparation of chlorine which was used in the manufacture of bleachmg powder, and the combination of these processes gave England its early supremacy in the manufacture of heavy chemicals. The outstanding feature of the world's history since the discovery of America has been the development of colonial empires. Congested Europe needed an outlet for its population, and needed new sources of raw materials. At first the temperate and subtropical regions were occupied, and the raw materials were used about as they were found. Chemical processes found new uses and new products from the crude natural materials, and man advanced into the tropics. Tropical products became necessary to man's comfort, but the tropics resisted his advance. De Lesseps failed to dig the Panama Canal and many tropical colonies became the graveyards of political hopes. Pasteur, the greatest chemist that France has ever produced, found the key to the situation when he discovered that bacteria are the cause of disease. I n the course of time yellow fever and bubonic plague, if not conquered, were a t least controlled, and the tropics were made safe for the white man. Today the great motives hack of the spread of colonial empire are the need of rubber and the need of petroleum. The work of the chemist in both of these fields is too well known to need comment. What will happen to some of these colonies when some chemist discovers a cheap synthetic process for the preparation will be hard to determine. It is doubtless some exaggeration to say that the discovery of America was in part due to the lack of a sufficient supply of ammonia in Europe, but it has some elements of truth. As the urban population in Europe increased, the difficulty of providing food a t a time when transportation methods were so primitive was very great. Meat, particularly, reached the consumer in a condition which we, today, would consider untit for consumption. To make this more palatable spices were required, and, consequently, the trade with India developed. Had there been artificial refrigeration, and had meat reached the consumer as we get i t today, it is quite possible that the discovery of America might have waited some time. Wars and rumors of wars have played a large part in history. Never again can a horde of barbarians come out of the woods, or over the plains, and destroy a civilized nation by mere force of numbers. The value of mere man-power has been minimized by science. War is now a chemical industry and no nation or people can wage successful warfare without the aid of the chemist. While the chemist has made the warrior more efficient as a fighter, he has also increased his chances of living should he
he wounded. The two greatest factors in modern surgery are the results of chemical research, the discovery of anesthesia, and the discovery of antiseptics. During the Franco-Prussian War nine of every ten men who entered the hospitals in Paris died of infected wounds. "A pinprick is the open door to death," said the surgeon Velpeau. When Pasteur visited the surgical ward, the stench of suppurating wounds was so strong that he could not stay. The chemist has changed all this. The wounded man now enters the hospital reasonably sure that his wound will grow no worse, while only a few years ago the wounded who entered the hospital left all hope behind. I am not a mind reader, hut I know that some of you are wondering what good all of this stuff is. You can see no value in a paper of this kind. To my mind material of this kind has a very definite value. It challenges the imagination of your pupil. It compels his attention and encourages his interest and, finally, it makes him think, and this, after all, is the end and aim of education.
