Some Observations on Undergraduate Research in Chemistry CHARLES B. HURD Union College, Schenectady, New York
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EVERAL years ago an occasion arose for making a study of the coursesin chemistry offeredto undergraduates by a number of colleges in this country. I n particular, those courses or groups of courses offered to students specializing in chemistry were of primary concern. Some of these programs had received the approval of the American Chemical Society Committee on the Professional Training of Chemists. The situation in regard to an undergraduate conrse in chemical research was particularly interesting. Chemical research, as a deiinite undergraduate course is available to the students of some, but by no means, all, of the colleges in this country. In some colleges such a course is required in the specialized program leading to a bachelor's degree in chemistry. In other colleges the course is elective. Certain colleges add the restriction that the course may be elected only by students who obtain special permission. Sometimes students, by permission, may do work in chemical research under competent direction of an interested faculty member, although this does not appear as a course in the catalog. Finally, there are colleges in which no chemical research is done by undergraduates under any conditions. Such a lack of uniformity in the practice of a rather conservative group of educators is significant. There is general agreement on the necessity for including a t least one course from each of the main branches of chemistry, namely, general, analytical, organic, and physical chemistry, in any specialized program of undergradnate training leading to a degree in chemistry. Actually, the program is usually built up around these four courses. The Committee on the Professional Training of Chemists has recognized the necessity for the inclusion of these four necessary and fundamental courses in its minimum requirements but has apparently recognized, also, the lack of agreement on the necessity for including a course in chemical research. Opinion of college teachers varies all the way from extreme enthusiasm for a conrse in chemical research to a belief that such a course should not be included in any undergradnate program. Apparently the enthusiasts outnumber the critics. When one is planning a specialized program of college courses intended to prepare the student in the best possible way for the profession of chemistry and, incidentally, for success in life, he mnst carefully weigh each required course. Four-year college programs are not indefinitely elastic. Each required course,
when it is about to be placed in the program, mnst be the most necessary and the most valuable course of all the possibilities. It is obvious that a course in chemical research has failed to qualify for snch a place in some specialized college programs, even though it has been included in many. For the last 20 years I have taught continuously a t Union College and, during all of this time, have been closely associated with the required course in chemical research, taken three afternoons per week through the senior year by all candidates for the degree of B.S. in Chemistry. In addition, my own college training, a t the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, included a required senior course in chemical research. The succeeding five years were spent in teaching a t the same institution. These years of association with senior courses in chemical research, particularly the 20 years of continuous association with the course a t Union College, have convinced me of the value of snch a course. As a student specializing in chemistry at Worcester Tech., I was assigned to work with a very fine chemist and teacher, Dr. Farrington Daniels. Looking back, I can realize that his imagination was limitless and that his optimistic spirit anticipated far more work than I, with my poor ability, conld possibly do in the time available. This experience has made me very sympathetic to many a student when the going has been tough in his senior problem. Dr. Daniels showed me, however, by his own skill and his ability to drive himself, how much conld be done by using brains and by hard work. My own undergraduate research taught me several things which I had never learned in my many other courses in college. So far as they can be separated and described, they were: 1. How to search the literature for work which had been done an the various sspects of a certain problem. 2. Haw to plan an attack upon a scientific problem. 3. How to do experiments for which there were no cwkbook rules. 4. How to depend upon my awn scientific knowledge.
Of course, i t is really not correct to say that I learned how to do these things. What I really succeeded in doing was to learn how to learn to do them. Only a few articles have appeared in the literature on the subject of undergraduate research in chemistry. Written by men enthusiastic about undergraduate participation in research, they have been favorable to the inclusion of such a course, or of extra-time research in the undergraduate program. The form that
this work shall take has varied considerably from library research only (1) and experimentation only (I), through "cooperative junior research" (2, 3), to a combination of literature search and planned experimentation similar to that carried out in the graduate school but on a less ambitious scale ( 1 , 4 , 5). The idea that the student might serve merely as a handy man for a more experienced research man has been mentioned (5,6), and criticized as a very poor substitute for actual personal research. An interesting article on research for secondary-school students (7) has also appeared recently. It is not my intention to extol the one type of research and to criticize the other, but all of my experience indicates that the best results in undergraduate research in chemistry have come by a combination of literature search and planned experimentation, under the diiection of a member of the faculty. The course includes the presentation of a satisfactory written thesis. Since 1921, when the first students graduated with a B.S. in Chemistry a t Union College, over 150have taken the required course in chemical research. All but 19, included in the first three classes, have come directly under my observation. In addition, five students specializing in chemistry but not takimg the B.S. in Chemistry have been allowed to elect the course, although i t is not a regular elective. In 20 years, very few failures have occurred. Although other members of the staff now share in the supervision of this course, over 80 per cent of all the students have worked under the writer's supervision and the others have been under observation. This now appears to have been quite a responsibility, but the situation has provided an excellent chance to observe undergraduate research in operation a t the same college for 20 years. The course was originally included in the curriculum because of the enthusiasm of Dr. Edward Ellery, for many years chairman of the Chemistry Department. All members of the staff of the Chemistry Department are enthusiastic about the course. The students, in very large majority, lookforward with real desire to taking the course, enjoy the ups and suffer with the downs while they are taking it, and report, when they have finished, that they are glad they had the course. We circularize our alumni every few years with a request for suggestions to improve the curriculum, and very few have ever suggested the elimination of the required course in research. To those not familiar with our curriculum, it may help to state here that the B.S. in Chemistry represents the greatest degree of specialization in chemistry a t Union College. The Major in Chemistry is less specialized and allows more free electives. The course in chemical research is not required of the second group, although a few have elected the course. Only two departments, chemistry and physics, include a required course in research. In evaluating any course, one must depend on opinion, since no quantitative measure is available. Certain ideas are clear to me, however, after nearly 30 years of experience. It seems likely that they will
apply quite as well in many other colleges. They are as follows: 1. The research problem should be under the direction of a member of the st& who is well informed on the.subject. The time available for senior research is limited. The student cannot get any comprehensive idea of the whole fidd of knowledge associated with the research problem in the time which he may spend upon the problem. That is the instructor's task, to know the whole subject thoroughly. He must be able a t the start to outline the problem clearly to the student and to help solve any real difficulties which halt the progress of the work. Otherwise, much time is lost in fruitless fumbling around. This limitation sharply reduces the number of snbjects in which research topics can be offered to undergraduates. When one adds the condition that the majority of instructors who conduct undergraduate research are spending most of their time in teaching or other work, it becomes even .more evident that the instructor must be well versed in the subject and should limit the topics offered to his fields of specialization. It has even been suggested that the students should all work on parts of the same problem. This would appear to be carrying the idea of limitation too far. The instructor encounters a real problem a t this point. No one can know all there is to know about a given subject, otherwise there would be no need for research. Research is a seriesof planned steps, each one venturing out beyond the limits of present knowledge. If the experimenter's grasp of the field is broad, he can make the majority of these steps produce some kind of results. In starting a new program, he should be sure that he can plan these steps intelligently. This he can scarcely do if he is not well informed on the subject. 2. The problem should be one capable of giving good results to a student of average ability in the time available. This condition is almost as important as the first one. We should remember'that one purpose of student research is to teach technique, another, to develop interest. Any good research problem will offer plenty of difficulties which must be surmounted. Difficulties should be encountered, but the student who climbs wearily over one difficulty after another only to come to the end of the course with no results is almost certain to be discouraged with both research and chemistry. It will be much better for the student to obtain some fine results upon a problem which is not too difficult than to fail gloriously upon a problem which would tax a Ph.D. Most students who obtain some results acquire a feeling of owning the problem. Graduates of our course who have had some years of experience after gradnation and who come back to renew acquaintance, often speak of "my research problem." Recently a graduate came in who had just received his Ph.D. from a good university. He spent some time telling me of the work which he had just completed and of the fine position which he had accepted. As we went through the
laboratory, he suddenly walked over and stood in front of the apparatus on which he did his undergraduate research. His first remark was, "Who is working on my apparatus now?" 3. No research problem for undergraduates should consist merely of hack work. Here I agree completely with others who have already expressed this idea (5, 6). It is true that an instructor sometimes has developed or has access t o a new piece of apparatus which is so efficient that one merely has to grind out results. An undergraduate could do this very well and pile up results for the older man to use. Any senior who is unfortunate enough to be assigned to such a problem of routine operation loses one of the real opportunities provided by a good research problem, namely, planning a procedure and overcoming some difficulties. He acquires a totally incorrect idea of research in chemistry and, if he has the active imagination always present in a good research man, even a beginner, he becomes discouraged in his first experience. The instructor who wisely decides not to give hack work problems in undergraduate research faces a difficult situation. He is almost certain to be occupied with time-consuming duties. If he is a good research man, he is anxious to secure results, and he knows by experience that grinding out data is uninteresting. He may also be in a college where his personal prestige and chances for advancement depepd quite largely upon his productivity. The instructor, therefore, is sorely tempted to let a good, reliable student turn the crank for h i . He must resist this temptation. The research course has operated here for over 20 years, approximately as follows: A list of topics is submitted to the students at the beginning of the course. They read the list eagerly, look up references on favorite topics, talk with the instructors and, at the end of about two weeks, make a written choice of topics, giving first, second, and third choices. Where there is no conflict in f i s t choice, the topic is assigned; where there is a conflict, the choice is determined either by conference or by lot. Once settled on his topic, the student confers frequently with the instructor and does his reference reading. The instructor outlines the problem carefully and helps the student to a start on his reference work, frequently checking his progress and noting references consulted. He does not, however, give the student access to the instructor's own private reference files. If the student has missed a very critical reference, the instructor goes to the library with the student and runs the reference down, usually in Chemical Abstracts, not by looking for the reference directly under the author's name but by running through the index again. This is a more laborious method but gives the student much better training. The student starts work as soon as possible, usually within the first month, before his literature search i s complete. Here, of course, his f i s t efforts in experiment need guidance. He feels much better, as many students have said, "to be doing something." Some-
times one will note a flagging in the student's interest while he is looking up references which is replaced again by enthusiasm when he begins "to do something." The best research students learn to make a literature search, to plan an attack on a research problem, and to do original experiments. Some, after several months, can work almost independently. Many of these go on to graduate school. The poorest students learn to do a fair job of searching the literature but only follow definite directions in their work. The average students do quite well on all three counts and in most cases have shown real pride in their work. They often follow future work in the field and many have sent back valuable suggestions sometime after graduation. At the end of the course, each student must present a carefully written thesis on his research. We require four copies, the original and three carbon copies. The student keeps a fifth copy, usually the first carbon. The original is bound for the chemistry library, one is bound for the main college library, and two are filed, one in our permanent locked file and one to be used in case a bound copy is worn out or disappears. After some bad experiences with paper of the students' choice, we have purchased a stock of high quality paper which students must purchase from the stockroom. In preparing the thesis, the student is urged to follow the form used in scientific journals. He first presents a rough draft to the instructor, who goes over it with h i carefully. Few college students know how to write good, easy, grammatical English. The professor of chemistry may feel somewhat impatient a t having to show a student how to keep his sentences clear and his tenses uniform, but he should either do this h i s e l f or call in the Department of English. The importance of knowing how to write clear, acceptable reports has been stressed lately by many companies. Curves should be drawn and lettered neatly. Our students draw one very good set of graphs on thin coordinate paper and have these reproduced by a process similar to blueprinting, but reversed. Our Engineering Department has such a machine. The cost is moderate. Responsibility for publication rests with the instructor. Joint papers carry the name of the instructor, who has written the paper, together with that of the student. The student coauthor may have as many reprints as he wishes, a t the department's expense. Since 1923, 130 students have taken the research course. Of these, 24 have appeared as coauthors. A total of 23 papers, based on the work of seniors, has appeared in six scientificjournals. The spirit of research is strong in Schenectady, due chiefly to the presence of the General Electric Company's Research Laboratory. The students have come into contact with some of the workers at the Research Laboratory in various ways. Also, we have the present custom of the college of appointing an honorary fellow in science each year. These men spend several days on the campus, giving lectures and talking with the
students. The presence in the city of so many scientifically trained men adds to the interest shown by the students in scientific investigation. Few students have actively disliked the research course; some have voluntarily spent almost all ,of their free time in the laboratory, putting in perhaps three times as much time as required. Before embarking upon a program of undergraduate research in chemistry, one should consider very carefully several matters which concern the students, the faculty, and the college. F i s t , it is essential to decide how many and what type of students shall take this course. Will the course be compulsory for a certain group, as i t is here a t Union College, or will i t be elective? How much time can the students spend per week? Research is time consuming and, from our experience, three afternoons per week for a year is certainly not too much time. Is there a good spirit among the students? Do they show interest in research by members of the faculty? These and other questions must be answered in each college situation. Direction of undergraduate research is by no means easy work. The instructor must be willing to spend time, large amounts of it, and a t very inconvenient moments. Professor Smith's statement (5) that time must be given "nnstintingly" is moderate. The instructor's own reference file covering these undergraduate problems should be essentially complete. This requires facility with scientific literature and an orderly habit of filing data. The instructor must not only be well informed in his field but he must, himself, be skilful in experimental work. He should be able to do any of the necessary operations himself, or be able to learn quickly how to do them. He must be patient with a student, although this is a necessary qualification for any teacher. Here a t Union College although one instructor has carried the major part of the work in the senior research course in chemistry, we have encouraged other mem-
bers of the staff to participate by taking one, or perhaps two, students. Most of these staff members have been young men just out of graduate school. No one could criticize their enthusiasm but, in their lack of experience, they showed certain characteristic faults. Problems offered were apt to be too difficult and were on subjects upon which the instructors were not thoroughly informed. They also lacked patience or insight into the students' d;fficulties. Insight into students' minds comes with experience. Research by undergraduates is best carried out in a laboratory which is not used for other work. By having the room used onlv for research. it is oossible to keen apparatus setups from being disturbed. The college should have equipment enough so that a research student can keep his own apparatus for use. The more simple the equipment, the better. Whether or not special equipment should be purchased for undergraduate research must be determined by local conditions. Our experience, a t Union College, with our required senior course in chemical research has been favorable. We are convinced that the course accomplishes results which we could not get in any other way. While we cannot recommend that such a course be established in every college, we do believe that any college offering a specialized curriculum in chemistry should carefully examine the possibilities of a course in undergraduate research. LITERATURE CITED (1) YOE,"Senior research," J. CHEM.E~uc., 18,410 (1941).
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AND CORTELYOU, "A proposal for cooperative (2) CORTBLYOU junior research," ibid., 13, 565 (1936). AND CORTELYOU, "A discussion of the proposal (3) CORTELYOU for cooperativejuniorresearch," ibid., 16,296 (1939). (4) METCALF, "Research in colleges," Bull. Am. Assoc. Univ. Prof., 14, 277 (1928). (5) Saarr~,"Research in the undergraduate curriculum of the 9,285 (1932). course in chemistry," J. CHEM.E~uc.. , for the undergraduate," ibid., 9, 280 (6) K I ~ "Research
(7) Ross, "Research problems for. secondary schcul pupils." ibid., 15, 84 (1938).
SOME EFFECTS OF PRESSURE UPON THE PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES (Conlinucd from peg8 63) BACHBM,"Uber die Kompressihilitit itektrolytischer LBsungen," Z. Physik, 101, 541 (1936). BORN,' ' V o l u m ~ und Hydratationsw?ume der Ionen." ibid, 1, 45 (1920). BRIDGUN,"The Physics of High Pressure." The Macmillan Company, New York. 1931. COHEN,"Physico-Chemical Metamorphosis and Problems in Piemhemistry," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1926. GIBSON,"The iduence of concentration on the compressions of aoueous solutions of certain sulfates and a note on the rep&sentation of the compressions of aqueous MIUtions as a function of pressure." J. Am. Chem. Soc., 56, 4 (1934). GIBSON,"The influence of the concentration and nature of the solute an the compressions of certain aqueous solutions," ibid., 57, 284 (i935). GIBSON, "On the effectof pressure on the solubility of solids in liquids," A m . J . Sci., 35A, 49 (1938). GIBSON."The nature of solutions and their behavior under high pressures," Sci. Monlhly, 46, 103 (1938). m~LOEPPLER, "Pressure-volume-temperaturerelaGIBSON
tions in salutious." J. Phys. Chcm., 43, 207 (1939); J. Am. Chem. Soc., 61,2515 (1939). OWENAND BRINKLEY, "Calculation of the effectof pressure upon ionic equilibria in pure water and in salt solutions." Chem. Reus., 29, 461 (1941); Correction: In Figure 2, page 472, the solid lines designate systems in salt water, and the broken lines represent systems in pure water. OWENAND BRINXLEY,"The effect of pressure upon the dielectric constants of liquids," Phys. Reus., 121. 64, 32 (1943). . . PAWLINO,"The Nature of the Chemical Bond." Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1939, Chapter X. TAIT, "Report on some of the physical properties of freshwater and of sea-water." 1888. From "The Physic;: and Chemistry of the Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger. Vol. 11, Part IV. S. P. LXI. die Abhingigkeit der Volumina von T ~ A N N"iiber , LBsungen vom Druck," Z. physik. Chem., 17,620 (1895). T ~ A N N"ijber , die Beziehungen zwischen den innern Krsften und Eigenshaften der LBsungen," L. Voss, Leipsig, 1907, p. 36.
