space resources for teachers
WILLIAM H. BOWMAN1 RICHARD M. LAWRENCE Ball State University Muncie, Indiana 47306
Life-Support Systems for Manned Space Flights M a n is far from being an independent creature. He a dependent upon his environment for food, oxygen, water, and other basic necessities a well as for the dissipation of many of the toxic byproducts of his existence. I n choosing to venture into space, man has intensified the problem of providing systems capable of supplying these needs. All space flights to date have been of relatively short duration, and sufficient food, water, and oxygen have been provided largely by prestorage aboard the spacecraft. Carbon dioxide, a major waste product of man, has been removed from the cabin atmosphere by reaction with lithium hydroxide. Anyone who has seen a manned spacecraft is acutely aware of its limited storage capacity. Consequently, when missions of several months or more are considered, physical storage of the necessary quantitites of food, water, oxygen, (see the table) and absorbents becomes increasingly difficult or even impossible. For such missions, either regenerative systems mill be required, or a series of space stations along the route must be established. The former approach presently is considered more realistic, and space scientists are now attempting to develop regenerative life-support systems. Both chemical and biological types of regenerative systems are being examined. The biological systems employ algae, bacteria, green plants, or some combination of these, to establish an ecological cycle that mimics that existing on Earth. Chemical regenerative systems use sequences of relatively simple chemical processes t o establish an artificial ecological cycle. Chemical systems presently are considered superior to biological systems in meeting the rather stringent criteria of simplicity, reliability, efficiency, and compactness ~vhichmust characterize an acceptable lifesupport system. Carbon Dioxide Removal
Carbon dioxide is one of the major contaminants encountered in manned spacecraft. The maximum allowable concentration of carbon dioxide in a space cabin has been estimated to be approximately 3 parts per hundred (2) or a partial pressure of about 7.6 tom This article is one of a series of articles based on resource units W. H., "Space Resources for in LAWIIENCE,R. M., AND BOWMAN, Teachers: Chemistry;'' NASA EP-87, 1971, available through the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washineton. D. C. 20402. Maryland 20014.
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Mon's Daily Balance (11"
Material Balance (lb)
Commodity
Water Balance (lb)
. ...r - - -
Urine (9.5%H.0) Feces (75.8y0H1O) Transpired H 2 0 C02 (1.63 lb OZ) Other losses
3.24 0.29 2.20 2.24 0.14 -
3.08 0.22 2.20
Food (dry weight)
1.5 1.92
0.16
0s
Tntnl
4.69 8.11
Metabolic HzO Hz0
-
0.66 4.69 5.50
The values given in the table are the nominal amounts of substances consumed and excreted by a moderately active man of average sae. The amounts of water and oxygen potentially recoverable from man's waste products are also ind~cated.
(3). Removal of carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere on all flights to date has been accomplished by its absorption with lithium hydroxide. Alkali metal hydroxides react readily with carbon dioxide in the presence of water vapor according to the following general equation (M represents any alkali metal) 2 MOH(s)
+ CO&)
-
M2CO&)
+ HIO(aq)
A simple weight-weight calculation shows that to absorb the 2.2 lb of carbon dioxide released per man per day requires about 2.4 lb of LiOH, 4.0 lb of NaOH, or 5.6 lb of KOH. Thus, the use of LiOH gives the smallest weight penalty per pound of carbon dioxide absorbed. The LiOH-CO? reaction is essentially irreversible and is of little use if the carbon dioxide is to be used subsequently in a regenerative life-support system. In such a system, the carbon dioxide must be removed from the cabin atmosphere and concentrated by some mech* nism that will allow its easy recovery for subsequent treatment. One potential regenerative system uses metallic oxides, particularly silver oxide, as the absorbent. The general equation for the reaction may be written as follows Ag*O(s)
+ GO&)
a Ag,COs(s)
The reaction is reversible; about 90% of the silver carbonate can be decomposed in four hours at a temperature of 180" C to recover the carbon dioxide. Another potential system for the removal and concentration of carbon dioxide takes advantage of the ability of ions to undergo exchange reactions and to migrate in an electric field. As illustrated in the figure,
CONTAINING CO,
Schematic representation of an ionexchange system for concentrating sorbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide, removed from the cabin air b y reoclion with hydroxide ions migrates in the form of carbonate ions into the cation resin. There lhe cmbonate ions react with hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide i s liberated as a gos
the cabin air flows through an anion exchange resin containing hydroxide ions as the exchangeable ions. These react with the carbon dioxide to form carbonate ions. 2 OH-(ad
+ C0&9
-
HzO(aq)
+ C0a2-(aq)
Under the influence of an electric field, the carbonate ions migrate from the absorption cell into the concentra tion cell where hydrogen ions from the cation exchange resin react with the carbonate ions to regenerate carhon dioxide. COF(aq)
+ 2 Hf(aq)
-
HgO(aq)
fluid (4), that is, at a pressure greater than its critical pressure (49.7 atm) and at a temperature above its critical temperature. Under these conditions, oxygen exists as one phase, behaving as a compressed liquid. Thus, the density advantages of a liquid are combined with the single-phase advantages of a compressed gas. The oxygen is discharged from the tank at a pressure that is maintained by the regulated addition of heat. Numerous chemical methods of regenerating oxygen from waste products have been examined (5). Most of these systems are based on the reduction of carhon dioxide with direct or subsequent recovery of the oxygen contained in the carhon dioxide. The processes that appear most promising involve the reduction of carhon dioxide with molecular hydrogen to form water which is subsequently electrolyzed to produce oxygen (6). One variation of this process is knorr-n as the Sabatier or methanization reaction. The equation for this reaction is C0&)
+ 4 Hdg) GO*
Ni
CH&)
+ 2 HzO(g)
At a temperature of 200' C about 99% of the carbon dioxide is converted. The methane from this reaction can be pyrolyzed, and the resulting hydrogen can be recovered and then recycled CHM
-
C(s)
+ 2 Hdg)
The water from the methanization reaction can be electrolyzed to yield additional hydrogen and the desired oxygen
+ CO&
The carbon dioxide is then discharged as a more highly concentrated gas and fed to an oxygen recovery system. Oxygen Supply
Oxygen can be stored in a variety of forms, includng high-pressure gas, supercritical fluid, cryogenic liquid, and oxygen-producing chemicals. Prestorage as a high-pressure gas a a s employed for the RIercury flights primarily because it is the simplest method. Because sturdy, pressure-resistant tanks are required, however, high-pressure storage provides the greatest weight penalty. Liquid storage has several advantages over gas storage. The greater density and lorrer vapor pressure of oxygen in condensed form reduces the size and strength of the tanks required. Among the disadvantages of liquid storage are the need for maintaining the temperature below the critical temperature of oxygen, 164.S°K, and the continuous presence of tmo phases in the storage tank as a result of vaporization of the liquid. Removal of oxygen from the container as a gas is desirable from the standpoint of regulating both temperature and pressure within the storage tank. Discharging Oz in the form of a gas removes larger amounts of heat energy from the storage tank than would the discharge of Oz as a liquid thus reducing the capacity of the cooling system needed t o maintain the O2 in the form of a liquid. I n a zero gravity environment, however, it is difficult to prevent discharge of the liquid. As a compromise solution, the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft carried oxygen in the form of a supercritical
The sum of these three reactions gives the desired result, &., the recovery of oxygen from carbon dioxide COds)
-
C(s)
+ Ozk)
Direct electrolysis systems also represent potential methods for the recovery of oxygen from carbon dioxide. One of these (7),employs a mixed solid oxide electrolyte consisting of a mixture of zirconium oxide and calcium oxide. Carbon dioxide is reduced at the cathode to carhon monoxide and an oxide ion Cathode reaction: CO&)
+ 2 c-
-
CO(g)
+ OZ-(s)
The oxide ions then migrate under the influence of the electrical field through the electrolyte to the anode where they give up electrons and form oxygen gas Anode reaction: 0'-(s)
-
'/,O,(g)
+ 2c-
The carbon monoxide formed is subsequently converted t o carbon and carhon dioxide, and the latter can be recycled through the electrolysis cell
Food and Water Supplies
Man needs about 5.5 pounds of ~vaterper day. Some of this water can he obtained in the food he consumes; even freeze-dried foods have a residual xater content of about 10% by weight. I n addition, some water is formed as a product of the oxidation of these foods within the body. The remainder must be supplied as drinking water (see the table). Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells, such as those used aboard Volume 48, Number 4, April 1971
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the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, can provide drinking mater as a byproduct of their production of electrical current. For n~issions of long duration, however, fuel cells will probably be replaced by other power sources (I), and stored water will be the only source available. Because man does not chemically alter the waler he consumes, recovery of the waier contained in his maste products (see the table) will greatly reduce the amount of water that must be stored on board the spacecraft. Numerous water reclamation systems have been examined (1). No single system appears applicable to all situations. For example, a modified vacuum distillation system (4, 6) appears most feasible for recovery of water from urine. On the other hand, water lost through respiration and perspiration is already in the vapor phase and is recovered most easily by cooling the cabin air below its dew point and allowing the xater vapor to condense. The production of potable water often requires additional treatment of the recovered water to remove contaminants such as microorganisms, volatile solutes, and dissolved gases. Afan's daily food intake ~ e i g h considerably s less than the water lie requires, averaging about 1.5 pounds ''dry" weight per day ( I ) . (As indicated earlier, "dry" foods contain some residual water. The value given is based on use of freeze-dried foods containing a residual water content of about 10% by weight.) Presently, this need is met in space largely in the form of stored freeze-dried foods. The feasibility of regenerating foods, particularly carbohydrates, from metabolic waste products is being studied (7-10). The available starting materials for such a synthesis are carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and mater. Direct synthesis of carbohydrates from these materials has been considered but is difficult; the synthesis can be accomplished, however, by starting with intermediate produots such as formaldehyde, CHgO. Formaldehyde can be prepared by first reacting carbon dioxide with hydrogen in the presence of the oxides of chromium and zinc to form methanol
Methanol, in turn, is readily oxidized to formaldehyde by air in the presence of a silver or copper catalyst
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lournol of Chemicol Edumtion
Another synthesis of formaldehyde involves the oxide, tion of the methane formed in the Sabatier reaction. Barium peroxide serves as the catalyst
Formaldehyde can be polymerized under alkaline conditions to give polyalcohol structures of the type
This reaction makes possible the synthesis of carbohydrates; the net reaction may be represented as
where n is any integer greater than 2. Studies (7, 8) have shown that a mixture of carbohydrate and noncarbohydmte products generally is formed. Furthermore, this mixture was found to be toxic when fed to rats at levels equivalent to 3040% of their caloric requirement. Identification and elimination of any toxic material may make this process of primaiy importance for production of carbohydrates for consumption during extended missions in space. Literature Cited (1) P o ~ r rD. , C.. m n COCLINB, V. G., "Space Vehicle Water Redamation Systems," NASA Langley Research Center, 1065.35 pp. (2) HENRI,J. P., "Biomedical Aspects of Spsee Flight," Holt. Rinehart and Winston, Ino.. New York, 1065, Chanter 4, pp. 92-105. (3) Wmcn, n. E., i n "Physiology of Man in Sgaoe" (Mito?: n ~ o w J. El. U.)Aohdemic Press, Ino., New York, 1963, W . 31-32, (4) SWYLIE, R. E., AND REIIMBNT, M. 8.. in "~MmnedSpacecraft: Engineering D e s i ~ n and Operation" (Editors: P t m a m n , P. E., FACET. M. A,. A N D SMITII,N. F.) Fairchild Pnblioations. he., New York, 1064, Chapter 15. (5) "Significant Achievements i n Spaoe Biosoienee 1958 to 1964." NASA SP-92. 1966, pp. 77-8. (6) SWYLIE, J. W.. " E v d u a t i ~ nand Appliostion'of Chemioslly Repenerative Atmospheric Control Systems." U. S. Dept. of Commerce, OAoe of Teehnioal Services, 1964, p. vii. (7) Information obtained by the authors i n a group meeting with NASA seientista, NASA Ames Research Center. (8) ~ I N I * N , Y. Y.. i n "Problems of Spsee Biolo%y," (Editors: SLSAKWN. N. M. A N D YAZDOVSXIY, V. I.). Joint Pahliohtion Research Service. Washington. D. C., 1964, P P 443-53. (9) AXERLOF. 0. C., AND M I T C H ~ P. L .W. D.. "Study of t h e Feasibility of Regener
