Spanish-Speaking English Language Learners' Experiences in High

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Spanish-Speaking English Language Learners’ Experiences in High School Chemistry Education Annette Flores† and K. Christopher Smith*,‡ †

Science Department, Nimitz Senior High School, Houston, Texas 77073-3301, United States Department of Chemistry, University of Texas-Pan American, Edinburg, Texas 78539-2999, United States

‡

ABSTRACT: This article reports on the experiences of Spanish-speaking English language learners in high school chemistry courses, focusing largely on experiences in learning the English language, experiences learning chemistry, and experiences learning chemistry in the English language. The findings illustrate the cognitive processes the students undertake while learning, and highlight the importance of a motivational and supportive network for the students, including their parents, teachers, and classmates. The findings also carry important educational implications for English language learners in chemistry. KEYWORDS: High School/Introductory Chemistry, Chemical Education Research, Minorities in Chemistry FEATURE: Chemical Education Research

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effects on the science achievement and scientific discourse of the students. In addition to the effects of these curricular interventions on students’ achievement, researchers have examined the beliefs and perceptions of elementary teachers involved in professional development activities focused on science education for ELLs or involved in delivering the curricular interventions. One of the main benefits of the teachers’ involvement was their resulting expanded view of how English language and literacy acquisition was integrated with science content development.15−17 Other benefits of the teachers’ involvement included learning to provide more effective linguistic scaffolding,16,17 stronger beliefs about the importance of reading and writing within the context of science instruction,16 and enhanced science content knowledge.18 While these studies offer important insight on science education for ELLs, they focus primarily on the elementary school level. Little work has been focused on science education for older ELL students who may face more challenges in acquiring the English language,19 and who study more complex and distinct science subjects, such as chemistry, in the later grades. In addition, the aforementioned studies focus on the beliefs and perceptions of teachers, and the academic science achievement of the ELL students, but give little insight into the experiences of the students learning science and the English language together. The goal of this article is to describe the experiences of ELL students studying chemistry in high school. Our research question was: What are the experiences of ELL students learning both chemistry and English in high school?

he National Science Education Standards state (ref 1, p 4):

The diversity of students’ needs, experiences, and backgrounds requires that teachers and schools support varied, high-quality opportunities for all students to learn science. This statement emphasizes the necessity for equitable science education policies for all students, including English language learners (ELLs), who speak a language other than English in their home.2 Lee et al. have pointed out the necessity for merging pedagogies that are specific to science with pedagogies that address the diversity of various students in order to make science accessible for all students;3 for ELL students in science education, this merging can be approached by incorporating sound science pedagogies within a context made more meaningful by considering the students’ language and culture. Several studies in the literature have reported on such science curricular interventions for ELL students, typically focused on elementary students. As summarized by Lee and Buxton,4 Lee and colleagues have developed science curriculum materials for teachers and ELL students of third, fourth, and fifth grades. These materials include science booklets, teachers’ guides, and supplies; the content of the materials focuses on science inquiry, the integration of English language and literacy in science class, and the consideration of students’ language and culture in science class. Lee and colleagues reported positive effects on the science and literacy achievement of elementary students using the materials.5−9 This body of work by Lee and colleagues stemmed from one of five federally funded projects over the past decade aimed at researching the integration of science, language, and literacy through curricular interventions, primarily at the elementary school level;10 these projects all reported positive effects on ELL students’ science and literacy achievement. Several other studies also focused on science curriculum materials for ELL students, including inquiry curriculum materials for elementary students,11 and computer-based curriculum materials for elementary students12 and middle school students;13,14 these studies also reported positive © 2012 American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

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THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE The theoretical frameworks used for this research were phenomenography and hermeneutics. Phenomenography, “The description of different ways people interpret shared experiences”,20 allows the researcher to neutrally construct a rich description of the participants’ experiences; this theoretical Published: November 19, 2012 152

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Table 1. Characteristics of the Participants’ Schools High School Number 1 2 3 4 5

School Type Public Public Public Public Public

charter school high school high school high school high school

Grade Range

Student Enrollment

Limited English Proficient Student Population, %

Texas Education Agency Ratinga

6−12 9−12 9−12 9−12 9−12

348 962 2170 1858 2768

9 25 16 18 13

Exemplary Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Recognized

The Texas Education Agency “Exemplary” rating included base indicators such as all students meeting 90% standard for each subject, the “Recognized” rating included base indicators such as all students meeting 80% standard for each subject, and the “Acceptable” rating included base indicators such all students meeting 55−70% standard on the various subjects of the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills.22

a

more language interventions in earlier school grade levels, most ELL elementary school students assimilate into a mainstream English language classroom by the time they reach third grade.24 This type of student is less likely to face language barriers or be treated as an ELL student at the secondary level, whereas a more recently labeled ELL student would have a different experience,23 and this second type of student was the focus of this study. Using the criteria outlined above, 17 students qualified and volunteered to participate, and they were interviewed for this study. Two main considerations guided the number of participants for our study: the potential unwieldiness of the study if more than 15 participants were interviewed,25 and the drive to achieve data saturation, at which point no new information would be observed in the data.26 We did not observe any major new themes emerging as the last set of students were interviewed, so the 17 students satisfied our sampling considerations. The characteristics of the students as well as their schools of origin are described in Table 2.

perspective enabled us to report on the ELL students’ experiences, as recounted by them. Hermeneutics, “Providing a voice to individuals or groups who either cannot speak for themselves or are traditionally ignored”,20 enables information from the participants to be compiled to provide them a representative voice; this theoretical perspective allowed us to express and share the ELL students’ experiences. This research offers chemistry educators of ELL students and researchers of chemical education a deeper understanding of how ELLs interpret their experiences in chemistry, as well as how teachers in chemistry can improve in educating future ELLs in their classrooms.

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METHODS

Context and Participants

This study took place in an area of the United States near the border with Mexico, and as such is the home of three main cultures: American, Mexican, and Mexican-American. In this region there are four counties, having a combined population of over 1.2 million, with 89% of the population of Hispanic origin, and with 82% of the population (ages 5+) having a language other than English spoken at home.21 Students from five different high schools were participants in the study. The five high schools were chosen because they represented different academic and social experiences among their students. The characteristics of the five high schools are described in Table 1. After obtaining human subjects research approval from the Institutional Review Board, permission to conduct the study was sought and granted from the principals or, as appropriate, the departments of human resources of the various schools. Each school provided a point of contact, such as an assistant principal or department head, who in turn provided information about their chemistry teachers and students. Teachers were contacted in person and were asked to distribute student and parental consent forms for the study through the students. In support of the study, all of the students were required to fulfill several criteria: (i) they identified English as their second language (and Spanish as their first language); (ii) they were enrolled in a high school chemistry course at the time of interview; and (iii) they first experienced academic content in English no earlier than four years prior to taking high school chemistry. This third criterion helped focus the study on students who identified themselves as more recently labeled ELL students.23 Pilot interviews found that students classified themselves as ELL students because they grew up speaking and learning the Spanish language first; their initial experience in using the English language was in primary school, and they identified English as their second language. Because there are

Table 2. Characteristics of the Student Participants High School Number

Participant Pseudonym (Gender, F or M)

Age

Grade

Self-Reported Ethnicity or Race

1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5

Alexandra (F) Beatriz (F) Carlos (M) Daniel (M) Esmeralda (F) Flor (F) Gustavo (M) Hilda (F) Ignacio (M) Julio (M) Krystal (F) Luis (M) Mario (M) Nestor (M) Olivia (F) Perla (F) Rocio (F)

16 16 15 16 17 19 17 15 15 16 16 17 17 17 16 15 17

10 10 10 10 10 11 12 9 10 10 10 10 9 11 10 9 10

Mexican Mexican Mexican-American Hispanic Mexican Mexican Mexican-American Mexican Mexican Mexican Hispanic Mexican Mexican Mexican Mexican Mexican Mexican

Data Collection and Analysis

All the participants were given individual semistructured interviews in English, which were audiotaped and later transcribed; the interviews ranged from 27−61 min in length, with an average length of 40 min. The interview consisted of four parts: the first part collected important participant demographic information; the second part focused on the student’s experience in learning the English language; the third 153

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These various English language levels indicated that the students had different influences and experiences in their development of the English language; these factors are discussed in the following section.

part focused on the student’s experience in learning chemistry content; and the fourth part of the interview was built upon parts two and three, wherein students were interviewed about their experience in learning chemistry content in the English language. The transcribed interviews were reviewed and analyzed initially through open coding,27 in which different concepts emerging in the interview data were grouped into categories. The transcribed interviews were further analyzed through axial coding,27 wherein connections across the categories led to interpretations of the data about the participants’ experiences in learning chemistry and the English language in high school. As indicated in Table 2, the participants were assigned pseudonyms in order to report on the data.

Experiences in Learning the English Language

During the interviews, the students discussed various factors that contributed to their English language development, either as hindrances, or as supportive or motivational factors. One of the main hindrances to English language development was the ability for the students to speak Spanish and still be understood by classmates and teachers, alleviating the necessity to speak English. This practice also served other purposes, such as minimizing self-consciousness, as Ignacio indicated: I speak most Spanish, las [the] words come out wrong in English, so I just want to speak Spanish. My friends still understand me. I always think I don’t say them right. So, I just speak Spanish...I can read English and maybe understand what you say. But, I don’t always like speaking cause I don’t know how to say a lot of words. In addition, Rocio indicated that speaking in Spanish helped her to maintain her identity: My teachers would teach in English but they helped us out in Spanish...For me, is disinvolved [excluded] more my language. I don’t speak it correctly but I try. Like the teachers were cool because they tried to teach me. But this isn’t my language, so, like I don’t use it a lot. Several different supportive or motivational factors for English language development also emerged during the interviews, centered on parents, teachers, classmates, and the students themselves. Some of the students indicated that their parents supported and encouraged them to learn the English language, as described by Perla: My mother says that like, she tells me I have to speak English, because I have to learn. And, I’m barely starting talking in English. My little sister, she tell her the same thing. Sometimes teachers provided extra support and encouragement for the students to learn English. In addition, not all teachers spoke Spanish, so sometimes the students had to communicate with the teachers in English. For example, Beatriz said: The teachers had me read a lot more so I can learn more words in English. And then some teacher didn’t know Spanish, so I really had to try to learn English so I can ask them questions.[...] if I didn’t know a word, they would help me figure out how to say it and what it would mean. They would translate words for me. Students also turned to classmates to help them develop their English language, understand English, and express their thoughts in English. Carlos noted that: Well, I used other students to help me translate words. When I don’t understand I just ask “how do you say this and that” but I have to say it in Spanish. And then say how you say it. In addition, students sometimes had their own motivational reasons for developing their English language skills. For example, Nestor said that: I want to learn a little more English, cause when I went to Mexico, I told my grandpa, “I’m going show you my degree”, so I want to finish high school. These results indicated that while the students could, for the most part, thrive in this geographic region by speaking Spanish without necessarily greatly developing their English language skills, there were motivational and supportive influences for

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Analyses of the interviews are reported organized according to the main sections of the interviews: student demographics; student experiences in learning the English language; student experiences in learning chemistry content; and student experiences in learning chemistry content in the English language. Demographics of the English Language Learners

Near the start of the interviews, students were asked to describe the level of English they had learned, in order to have them identify their own language level. Four different language levels emerged across the participant responses: beginner, intermediate-low, intermediate-high, and advanced. ELLs who described themselves as still being in the beginning stages of learning English reverted to their comfort zone regularly and spoke Spanish if at any time possible to communicate. For example, Carlos said: It’s low; I speak Spanish all the time. It’s kind of hard because I speak Spanish all the time ‘cause that’s what I understand, like at home. Intermediate-low students approached using the English language from a somewhat hesitant point of view by realizing they did not always know how to proficiently respond in English. According to Perla: I can listen to people who talk to me in English. I understand what they’re saying but, but I think to say back, I reply back in Spanish. Last year, I reply back in Spanish. I understand English, but sometimes I can’t reply in English because I don’t know how. In contrast, intermediate-high students were aware of their weakness but approached using the English language more aggressively by accepting their need to use English more often to improve, as Alexandra said: I just need to practice speaking more so I can express what I am thinking. Maybe in the middle but better because I just need to talk it more. Students identified as advanced speakers displayed more confidence than their fellow ELLs in their approach to speaking English. They accepted that their English was still not perfect but was good enough to carry a conversation and accepted the challenge to continue using the language to improve. For example, Nestor said: I think it’s good, but sometimes I have problems, like when I work. I work at the flea market and well, I’m not like a professional, but I think having to talk to people helps me speak more English.

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These results indicated that while several aspects of difficulty in learning chemistry reported by the ELL students were common among students in general, the difficulty for ELL students was further compounded by their learning English as well. In addition, even though there were difficulties, some of the students did find motivational factors to encourage them in learning chemistry.

them to develop their English. These influences were both external, involving their parents, teachers, and classmates, and internal, coming from the students themselves. These results also highlighted the network of people the students were motivated and supported by in developing their English language skillstheir parents, teachers, and classmates. This theme of supporting individuals was present in various parts of the interviews, and spoke to the importance of the ELL students having support in learning both chemistry and the English language.

Learning Chemistry in the English Language: Code Switching

In learning chemistry in the English language, ELL students must retain the English language to remember definitions for new words they encounter in chemistry, while processing this knowledge in Spanish in order to translate their response to a chemistry problem in the English language. This process is known as code switching, the multilingual ability that enables learners to harness their main language as a learning resource.28 All of the students indicated that they took chemistry concepts that had been presented to them in English, either translated the information as best they could into Spanish or connected information with definitions, processed this information and organized their thoughts to form a response, and finally responded in English. If they were unable to respond in English, they asked for assistance in translating their thoughts. This aspect of code switching in learning chemistry in the English language gave insight into the cognitive processes undertaken by ELL students when thinking about chemistry. In addition, these results highlighted the importance of cognitive connections for the ELL students, whether through definitions, translations, or other means. These cognitive connections were crucial, and gave important information on the types of resources that teachers can use to help ELL students studying chemistry.

Experiences in Learning Chemistry

During the interviews, the students discussed various aspects of their experiences in learning chemistry, including several difficulties in learning chemistry. These difficulties centered on comprehending chemistry content and processes within the context of the new language of chemistry and their developing English language. A main difficulty experienced by the students centered on the language of chemistry. In addition to learning English, ELL students have to learn the language of chemistry. The students were specific in stating that they could read the English words of chemistry content, but they either could not understand what they were reading or it took them a bit longer to understand what they read. For example, Krystal said: The words that we use sometimes, like they’re different, I don’t use them all the time, so I don’t remember them like for the tests. Another difficulty experienced by students involved analyzing chemical equations and formulas. This aspect of chemistry has proven to be difficult for many different students over the years, but there is added difficulty for ELL students who were learning English as well. Perla noted: [H]aving to understand the words [symbols in chemical equations] and then to use the numbers and then the math; all together it’s difficult. Students also experienced difficulty with the mathematics involved in chemistry, with students citing specific examples such as dimensional analysis and algebraic manipulations, which again have proven to be difficult for many students over the years. ELL students, however, faced the additional challenge of the new language of chemistry compounded by their learning English as well. Perla explained: [L]ike the words, when they don’t translate. I need to remember them in English, and then I need to remember what it means in English, and sometimes I can translate to Spanish. Like with the formulas, cause some of the terms there too I have to really remember what they mean so I can do the math. Despite their difficulties in learning chemistry, several of the students did mention motivational factors for learning chemistry. Several of the students had curiosity and interest in chemistry, even though it was difficult, as described by Esmeralda: I like science, but chemistry is hard. We have to learn new things like moles and stoichiometry and all of that. That’s when the hard part begins and then it’s in English. In addition, other students found more pragmatic motivation for learning chemistry. For example, Ignacio, who was required to have good grades in order to remain on the soccer team, said: Well, first semester, I played soccer. I do all my work and I take tests and I get good grades. And in second semester, well, soccer season ends.

Learning Chemistry in the English Language: Experiences with Classmates

The ELL students mentioned their classmates when discussing their experiences in learning chemistry in the English language, focusing on aspects of collegiality, contribution to the classroom environment, and peer assistance. These experiences may have been influenced by factors that differed among the different schools, such as student enrollment and school atmosphere. In terms of student enrollment, high schools 1 and 2 had lower student enrollments compared to high schools 3, 4, and 5. ELL students in high school 1 were not labeled but were still identified as not fluent in English and received supplemental instruction in reading through what was established as the “enrichment hour”. High school 1 students did not mention any distinction among their classmates in chemistry as ELL students; they were all different with various linguistic backgrounds and academic qualities. In contrast, students at high school 2 identified with all their classmates as English language learners, and with the exception of the student enrolled in pre-AP chemistry, ELL students took chemistry with students who were all ELL students and had small student enrollment in their chemistry courses. Between these two schools, students at high school 1 experienced a bit of indifference from some of their chemistry classmates when it came to their lack of ease with the English language, whereas the students at high school 2 code switched in their chemistry course at their convenience. For example, Beatriz from high school 1 said: 155

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Well, some of them are just very rude cause I don’t speak good English and they don’t help cause they’ll tell me, “oh you’re stupid, you can’t do that”. And some of them, they tell me I can. Maybe they make me feel bad and make me feel like I want to go back to my old school, but the people that help me get through it, I know I can do it. In addition, Carlos from high school 2 noted: I talk to everyone in class, but it’s a small class. I talk to mostly the boys. There’s a little girls, but they work together and the guys work together. It’s small cause we’re all kind of the same in speaking English and Spanish. Also, I’ve known them since pre-K, we are all around the same level with the language. But in chemistry, some are better than others. Students from high schools 3, 4, and 5 echoed in unison how their classmates’ inattention and lack of respect for the classroom and teachers was a hindrance to their learning chemistry in English. They were not alone in this thought; students from high school 2 also mentioned their classmates as a reason to switch from one chemistry course to the other. For example, Flor from high school 2 said: I started with another teacher last year and then I moved with the teacher I have now...with the other teacher, everyone was loud and, they made her annoyed. They were loud and if you try to teach that class it didn’t work out because they were always loud. So, I get why she couldn’t teach. Although the unruly behavior of some classmates disrupted the concentration of some ELL students learning chemistry, other classmates proved to be helpful, through translating the concepts presented by the teacher. For example, Nestor from high school 5 explained that speaking with classmates was: [S]ometimes good because the teacher can say it one way and it’s difficult, but then my classmate can say it a different way and it’s more easier. In addition, the use of group work and peer questioning provided an alternate perspective for ELL students in chemistry; it offered them the chance to understand chemistry in a comfortable setting of both English and Spanish. Students from high school 2 all enjoyed reflecting on the amount of group work assigned by their teacher. As noted by Daniel from high school 2: If we don’t understand it [chemistry concept] we start discussing it. Most of the time we translate it to Spanish, we’re speaking in Spanish; we ask the questions in Spanish, except for like the words that don’t translate, the chemistry words. These results spoke to the experiences of the ELL students with their classmates, and included some aspects perhaps common to many students in general, such as disruptive classmates and classmates who choose to ostracize others because they are different. However, these results also highlighted the assistance and support specific to ELL students, by classmates who also spoke Spanish and could help them, or through the use of group work so they could help one another. Interestingly, as noted above, the use of Spanish was a main hindrance to developing the English language, but it was a benefit and support in learning chemistry in the English language.

English, focusing on teacher attitude, teaching techniques, and teacher support and motivation. The aspect of teacher attitude was evident when the students discussed the assistance given by the teachers in helping them learn chemistry. The language of assistance (English or Spanish) did not seem to be as important as the teaching approach and presentation. If the teachers were invested in understanding the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of their students, being patient, and being approachable, the ELL students responded well. When teachers allowed their frustration to show, the students would take a back seat and decide not to approach their teacher with questions. According to Carlos: I try harder cause I know the teacher will help me if I don’t understand, he will give more examples. In terms of teaching techniques, the students most often referred to word walls29 (collections of words posted around the classroom and used as a source of definitions and examples) as a useful technique. In addition, the students cited different types of supplemental reference material as being useful, including Spanish examples, Spanish translations, Spanish definitions, different examples, and definitions. These techniques and supplemental material proved useful because ELL students in chemistry rely on their ability to read English to continue to learn chemistry, and they refer to definitions to learn about concepts in chemistry and look for certain words they can relate with. Teacher support and motivation was exemplified in the students’ participation in afterschool tutoring, whether with their own teacher or with another teacher. All students who mentioned attending afterschool tutoring as an extra step they took to learn chemistry mentioned how effective tutoring had been. Alexandra said: I just stay after school when I can’t get it during the day. The teacher is able to give me more help and I can listen more to what she teaches me. These results described the important roles that teachers played in the ELL students learning chemistry. Again, support and motivation were key aspects of the teacher−ELL student relationship. These results also gave insight into specific teaching techniques the ELL students found useful. Learning Chemistry in the English Language: Other ELL Student Perceptions

The students also discussed their perceptions of other contributions to their learning chemistry in the English language. Some of the students mentioned the language aspect as well as their teachers’ teaching approaches as being challenges to students’ understanding of chemistry. Other students, particularly from high schools 3, 4, and 5, indicated that they knew they were not fulfilling their roles as students, and were not doing their part in completing class assignments or homework. These were also the students who were more likely to become distracted by their classmates’ indifference to participating in learning chemistry. They attributed their lack of success to not performing to the best of their abilities as ELL students in chemistry. They also explained how they should try to practice and learn more English to be better students in chemistry. If language was the problem, then it was up to them to do more in terms of learning English; chemistry was not the difficult part of learning chemistry in English, it was the language. For example, Krystal said:

Learning Chemistry in the English Language: Experiences with Teachers

In addition to discussing the impact of their classmates on their learning chemistry, the students also spoke about the important role their teachers played in their understanding chemistry in 156

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I do my homework; I just don’t do it all the time. If I tried to do it more, then it actually be better cause I would have practice. These results revealed that the students did think about their own roles in their learning chemistry in English, and did not blame solely external factors for whatever difficulties they may have experienced. The students realized they could perhaps work harder, and focus more on the development of their English language skills. The analyses of the interviews indicated that the overall experience of the students in learning chemistry was influenced by several factors. These factors included the experience in acquiring the English language, the experience in learning chemistry, and the inclusive experience in learning chemistry in English, focused on the relationships they developed with their classmates, and the instruction provided by the teacher.

which would be more familiar to the ELL students, within the context of the discipline of chemistry. As such, real-world aspects would provide for a more manageable chemistry curriculum for ELL students. Third, ELL students would benefit from inquiry-based learning opportunities in the chemistry classroom. Inquiry-based learning would result in the ELL students, on some level, generating plans and ideas based on their understanding of chemistry. These plans and ideas would be evaluated by the teacher, and misconceived ideas and views could be addressed, including those resulting from English language deficiencies. The ELL students often used the technique of code switching, which involved taking chemistry concepts that had been presented to them in English, either translating the information as best they could into Spanish or connecting information with definitions, processing this information and organizing their thoughts to form a response, and finally responding in English. If they were unable to respond in English, they asked for assistance in translating their thoughts. Several implications for teaching ELL students in chemistry arose from this code switching aspect of this study. First, the information processing and analysis procedure involved in code switching would take a longer amount of time because both the English language and the Spanish language are involved. As such, the ELL students should be given more time to analyze and respond to a particular question or scenario. Second, as the process of code switching was facilitated by classmates through discussion, it is important for teachers of ELL students to encourage a respectful classroom environment that allows for discussion among classmates, through techniques involving cooperative learning. In the case of ELL students, strategic cooperative group organization would be critical in helping ELL students to voice their concerns or comments about concepts presented in class. It is important for teachers to group their students so that the ELL students have a chance to speak and discuss at least somewhat in their first language; this opportunity would allow the ELL students to have less anxiety and more confidence when discussing chemistry content, and would help minimize chemistry content misunderstandings that result from English language deficiencies. Interestingly, the results of this study indicated that the environment that allowed the students to speak Spanish hindered the development of their English language skills but was a benefit to their learning chemistry in English, in terms of their in-class peer interactions. However, exams and such are individual exercises, so the prudent recommendation would be for the ELL students to focus on developing their English language skills, as some students recognized. Several implications arose in relation to the development of the students’ English language proficiency, within the context of the chemistry classroom. First, ELL students would benefit from inquiry-based learning opportunities, which would result in them producing plans and ideas for activities. It is important for teachers to have ELL students write and discuss these plans and ideas, to help them develop their English proficiency. Second, ELL students would benefit from cooperative learning groupings in which they had to sometimes report or present on the group’s discussion. This presenting in the English language, after having discussed the ideas and concepts in their first language, would further help them develop their English proficiency. Third, ELL students could benefit from a structured note-taking strategy, such as using Cornell notes,31 in which students write notes on keywords or questions, main

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CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The ELL students participating in this study discussed various aspects of their experiences of learning chemistry in the English language. These experiences included difficulties perhaps common to many chemistry students, including difficulties with the mathematics in chemistry, disruptive and ostracizing classmates, and dislike of teachers’ teaching approaches. These difficulties for ELL students, however, were compounded by their learning English as well, and the difficulties with classmates seemed more pronounced at schools with larger student enrollments and less apparent ELL student resources. This study also emphasized the importance of a motivational and supportive network for the ELL students, including their parents, teachers, and classmates. In addition, the ELL students revealed some of their motivations for studying and trying to perform well, which included internal and external factors. The students revealed several aspects of the classroom environment that were beneficial to them and that were directly influenced by their teachers. These aspects included the teachers being motivational and supportive in their attitudes and actions, such as offering extra tutoring. Another aspect was the teachers’ use of different types of supplemental reference material, including Spanish examples, Spanish translations, Spanish definitions, definitions, and word walls.29 These types of of supplemental material are perhaps not specific to the are perhaps not specific to the discipline of chemistry, but it is important to note that they can aid ELL students in the chemistry classroom. In terms of teaching ELL students within the specific discipline of chemistry, several implications arose from this study. First, chemistry students are typically required to navigate between macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic representations of chemistry,30 each of which contains concepts, definitions, and interpretations. It is important for teachers of ELL students to make explicit the connections between these three realms of chemistry, in terms of the concepts, definitions, and interpretations, for the ELL students to more successfully navigate between the different realms. It would also be important for teachers to provide Spanishlanguage resources, such as translations and definitions, focused on the connections between the three representations of chemistry, and also to consider providing analogous online Spanish-language resources.14 Second, it is important for teachers to incorporate real-world examples and scenarios in the classroom. Real-world examples and scenarios would involve English language words and terms from everyday life, 157

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(24) Batalova, J.; Fix, M.; Murray, J. Measures of Change: The Demography and Literacy of Adolescent English LearnersA Report to Carnegie Corporation of New York; Migration Policy Institute: Washington, DC, 2007. (25) Miles, M. B.; Huberman, A. M. An Expanded Sourcebook: Qualitative Data Analysis, 2nd ed.; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, 1994. (26) Guest, G.; Bunce, A.; Johnson, L. Field Method 2006, 18, 59−82. (27) Strauss, A. L.; Corbin, J. Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory, 2nd ed.; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, 1998. (28) Setati, M.; Adler, J. Educ. Stud. Math. 2000, 43, 243−269. (29) Brabham, E. G.; Villaume, S. K. Read. Teach. 2001, 54, 700−702. (30) Johnstone, A. H. J. Comp. Assisted Learn. 1991, 7, 75−83. (31) Donohoo, J. J. Adolesc. Adult Lit. 2010, 224−227.

ideas, and a summary of the content. In the case of ELL students in the chemistry classroom, however, their notes could be both in English and Spanish, with a gradual shift toward more English text and less Spanish text, as their English proficiency progressed.

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AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: [email protected]. Notes

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We gratefully thank and acknowledge the students for sharing their experiences with us.

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REFERENCES

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