Starch Viscosity or Strength WILLARD L. MORGAN1 AND NORMAN L. VAUGHN2 Arnold, Hoffman & Company, Inc., Providence, R. I.
ing viscometer. Apparent viscosity of starch pastes changes rapidly with concentration which indicates that the effect is largely mechanical. Graphs based on strength figures are often misleading. Plots of apparent viscosity figures during progressive modification by dextrinization, oxidation, and acid thin-boiling treatment result in simple type. curves which clarify the nature of such changes. The commercial variation in starches permit extremely large ranges of viscosity and solids combinations.
The fluidity funnel commonly employed throughout the starch producing industry and the experimental factors affecting its use are examined. The strength funnel is not a true viscometer, and the strength scale varies in its relation to viscosity. A single unit of strength change from 0 to 20 represents an enormous change in true viscosity, whereas a unit change in the 80 to 100 strength range is only a slight change in viscosity. Apparent viscosity of starch pastes varies widely with the rate of shear used in the measur-
N T H E great
use of these funnels arise from the attempt to make a single instrument cover the extreme ranges in viscosity found in the numerous materials sold as starches. The funnels also provide easy cleaning which is a distinct necessity with these gelatinous and pasty materials. To those familiar with the nature of viscous flow, it is apparent that such a funnel can hardly be expected to measure true viscosity, as most of the flow measured will be hydraulic. The flow of ordinary liquids from such a fuhnel occurs in general accord with Equation 1, and the energy lost in hydraulic flow given by the second term is generally large instead of
I
majority of their uses the viscosity of starches is a main controlling factor in determining t h e i r utility. The preparation of starch dextrins and other modified starches is also generally IOOCC. followed and controlled by observing the progressive shifts in v i s c o s i t y of starch pastes which are suspensions of the swollen material. For this purpose the various starch producers generally use a Strength = cc. flow in 46 see. (feed, 100 c c . ) ; simple- f u n n e l calibration 100 cc.; water flows out in with a restricted 45 see. (feed, 115 c c . ) . tip of the type shown by Figure 1. The use of such a funnel appears to have begun with the Corn PToducts Refining Company, the funnel and some of the factors involved in its use being described by Buel (2)in 1912. While such funnels are in common use, the tips, calibration method, and other constructional details have been varied in some plants during the intervening years. One modification attempting to maintain relatively constant head conditions appears in Figure 2. The adoption and
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MAKINQ ABOUT ANGLE OPENINQ
FIGURE 2. MODIFICATION OF STARCH FUNNEL
Present address, Prolamine Products, Ino., Columbus, Ohio. Hercules Powder Company, Hopewell, Va.
Strength = cc. flow in 68 see. (feed, 300 C C J : calibration = 200 00.; water flows out in 68 see. (feed, 300 cc.).
* Present address,
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
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shown a t the right-hand side of Figure 3. Attempts to follow any progressive alteration of a starch using the starch strength scale results in irregular-appearing data which make true understanding difficult. The mere intercomparison of starch data as a t present reported (Table I) giving a single strength figure at some ratio of solids to water is often so difficult that one cannot determine the relative thickening order without further experimental work,
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TABLE I. SINGLE POINT DATA
1.7
Type of Starch R a w corn R a w tapioca Roasted tapioca White corn dextrin T e l l o w corn dextrin
10
Conoentrati on Ratio Yo 10:250 3.85 10:400 2.44 10:160 6:25 20:120 14.28 ti0:50 50.0
RelaApparent tive Relative ThickViscosity ening Strength Units Order 16 100 b 27 100 a 8 335 c 88 o d 52 38 e ~
20 30
%a 50
STRENGTH
FIGURE 3. CENTIPOISES os. STARCH FUKNEL STRENGTHS
negligible, as is desirable in a good viscometer ( I ) . Poiseuille equation corrected for kinetic energy loss is:
“=-7 gr4
PT
1.14 dV ~ T I T
apparent viscosity measured gravity constant P averaged pressure head r effective capillary radius 1 = capillary length d = density of liquid V = volume flow
where 9 g
= = = =
T
=
time of flow
The
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Apparent Viscosity Unit The conversion of the cubic centimeters of flow or strength of starches into apparent viscosity units is of real help in the systematic study of starchy materials. I n suggesting such a scale we wish to point out that, in order to avoid later misunderstandings, the figures secured should not be referred to as so many centipoises but might more properly be termed “relati>,e” or “apparent” viscosity units. The starch pastes are suspensions and not true liquids. Starches show anomalous viscosity, the apparent viscosity indicated being dependent upon the rate of she& existing in the instrument used. Thus, no two differently constructed viscometers can be expected to show the same apparent viscosity with a given starch paste as illustrated in Figure 4. While a starch paste may show an apparent vicosity of so many centipoises in the funnel described, i t is to be expected that it will show a different apparent viscosity in centipoises when measured on any of the standard instruments; such variation with capillaries of different radius and head are amply illustrated by Hixon (7). SJ‘hat we wish to indicate by the relative viscosity unit readings, then, is only that a starch of a given value flows through the given funnel in a time comparable with the time of flow of a true liquid of the indicated viscosity. Despite the wide difference in the two starch funnels shown in Figures 1 and 2, it appears that the second one used at a relatively constant head was made to duplicate reasonably the earlier type instrument, as is apparent in Figure 5.
The funnel shown in Figure 1 follom Equation 1 only approximately, depending upon the tip. In use it is made Tvith a tip such that when 115 cc. of water are placed in the funnel, 100 cc. will flow out in 45 seconds. In use 100 CC. of the starch paste are put into the funnel, and the number of cubic centimeters which flow through in this time is referred to as the strength. It is apparent that the greater the thickening effect, the lower is the strength; strength is, then, a fluidity r factor. -ro 5 0 0 IIf instead of starch pastes we run through this funnel ordinary liquids, such as glycerol, sulfuric acid, castor oil, etc., of known viscosity (as determined by a true viscomew . u ter such as a suitable set of capillaries) and plot the strength figures thus securedagainst - 3001 0 the known true viscosities for these liauids. Figure 3 results. This shons that-only in a small range a t the left of the curve does the instrument measure viscous flow. It also shows that there is a large differa ence in viscosity per strength unit in this range, while at the higher strengths a unit 1 2 25 3 3.5 4 change in strength corresponds to only X S T A R C H BY WEIGHT PERCENT STARCH BY WEIGHT slight changes in viscositv. Thus the scale or-the yar&tick on which the strength FIGURE 4. V I s C O S I T Y CURYES FOR FIGURE 5. FUNNEL COXPARISOX scale is laid out is a highly distorted one as FOR RAWCORNSTARCH RAWCORNSTARCH
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February, 1943
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The variation of apparent viscosity with rate of shear makes intercomparison of data on other instruments which are in general use in the starch consuming industry difficult. For very heavy pastes, such as are utilized in the textile printing trade, Glarum (6) showed that the Stormer viscometer is particularly adaptable, provided slippage is avoided. The food and paper trades frequently use the MacMichael instrument which, like the Stormer, offers easy study under varied rate-of-shear conditions. Capillaries and the Hoeppler viscometer can be used only on very thin solutions, and a little gelation upsets the readings and causes cleaning to be difficult. Hixon (7, 8), Porst and Moskowitz (IO), and Farrow and Lowe (4)have given considerable data showing the variation in apparent viscosity of starches when measured in capillaries a t various rates of shear secured by varying the pressure head or capillary size. Gallay and Bell (5) made a thorough study of the similar variation in apparent viscosity of starches with varying rate of shear in the MacMichael torFIGURE 6. APPARENTVISCOSITY RANGE OF COMMERCIAL STARCHES sional type of apparatus. Like Farrow and Lowe, they find that the phenomena in the main fit the empirical equation in the 10-25 range. Below 10 it is difficult to get duplicable F = KP" data and certainly above 80 the differences indicated by the where F = rate of flow, dv/dt strength scale are mainly without actual significance. I n an P = pressure n, K = constants depending on starch and instrument, reactual determination the preparation of the cooked starch disspectively. persion or paste is just as important a source of variation as is the instrument. Starches variously swell, burst, or disinteThus with a MacMichael viscometer the data for the logagrate during cooking; and, depending on the time and temrithm of the deflection us. the logarithm of the r. p. m. applied perature, the degree to which this is carried out varies with a plots over a considerable range as a straight line, but a t the wide variation in the resultant thickness or apparent viscoslower shearing rates this type of equation is not followed: ity. Temperature effects were previously reported by one log v / t = n log P log K of the writers (9). Mechanical agitation is necessary to prevent sticking and to ensure the full action of the heat, but It would appear that through the Williamson formulas (12) mechanical agitation also causes rupture of the swollen graina intercomparison of data on the various viscometers could be with consequent large decreases in apparent viscosity. This carried out once several apparent viscosities have been detereffect is well illustrated by the work of Caesar (3) whose conmined a t several different rates of shear. Thus, for the comsistometer curves also clearly show the rather rapidly occurplete characterization of a starch flow picture the Macring increases in apparent viscosity which take place when the Michael instrument appears best. pastes are cooled and gelation starts to set in. However, for plant control and investigations involving Consequently, an arbitrary procedure for preparing starch large numbers of determinations, the simple funnel appears to pastes must be followed closely in systematic comparison offer advantages, provided care is taken to use it in the best work, The following method which reduces variation from ways; namely, an attempt should be made to secure values
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FIGURE 7. PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF THICK RAWSTARCH ( X 260)
FIGURE8. PHOTOMICROGRAPH OB CORNDEXTRIN DISPERSED I N ALKALI(x 550)
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'O0OF
900
-
750
-
I - R A W CORN 2 50% LOW-SOL. C O R N DEXTRIN , 50% RAWCORN 3 . 5 0 % Of 100% SOLUBLE TAPIOCA DEXTRIN 50% RAW CORN d- LOW-SOLUBLE CORN DEXTRIN 5-100% SOLUBLE TAPIOCA DEXTRIN
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2
3
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FIGURE 10. VISCOSITIES OF MIXTURES
FIGURE9. RELATIONOF LOG VISCOSITYTO COXCENTRATION FOR MIXTUREOF HALF CORN AXD HALF TAPIOCA STARCH
the operator to a minimum was used to secure the data of this study: To the weighed starch sample, water was stirred in slowly to prevent lumping, the final volume being 200 cc. The starch mix-
ture in a 250-cc. beaker was heated to boiling in 15 minutes by an electric hot plate while being constantly stirred by a threebladed Lightning mixer running at 400 r. p. m. During cooking each batch lost 3 grams of water, and as viscosity changes in these pastes corrected for their loss in moisture could not be observed, no adjustments were made. As soon as the &minute cooking was completed, the pastes were placed in flasks, stoppered, and cooled to 28' C., at which temperature they were run immediately. The average of three strength readings was taken. The consistency of the strength readings of two operators is illustrated by the following data: Starch Raw
Strength Reading Operator 1 Operator 2
Concn. Ratio 10:300
6 5
7 Dextriniied
a7
20: 120
91 92
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TIME IN HOURS
FIGURE 11. PROGRESSIVE DEXTRINIZATION CURVES OF A MIXTUREOF TAPIOCA AND CORN
FIGURE12. VISCOSITYCHANGEDURING CONVERBION DEXTRINOF 6 PIR FOR A MIXED CORNAND TAPIOCA CENTCONCENTRATION
February, 1943
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Viscosity vs. Concentration The viscosity of starch solutions varies rapidly with changes in concentration, and in the practical use of the starch funnels the practice in industry is to select a starch concentration suitable to the various starches such that strength measurements can be secured on the funnel. However, the comparison of staruhes for apparent viscosity with the data at varied solids percentages is difficult. Consequently, apparent viscosities at several different solids contents are frequently desirable. Figure 6 shows several curves for starches (not corrected for density of solution) of widely different natures; this is the only means of bringing out the seldom realized extreme variation in apparent viscosity that can be secured with the wide range of materials offered industrially under the name of starches. By running along a constant apparent viscosity unit figure of, say, 300, approximately forty times as much of the canary corn dextrin starch is needed per 100
237
cc. of water as of the raw tapioca starch to give the same viscosity; conversely, the thin starch can obviously be used at a high solids concentration without trouble arising from too thick solutions.
PER CENT CULORINE APPLIED TO STARCU
30
E
FIGURE 14. CONSTANT VISCOSITY FOR OXIDIZEDCORN CONDITIONS STARCHES
5 40 c r7
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50L
Each curve shows an almost linear increase in apparent viscosity a t first, followed by a rapid increase with further increases in concentration; still further slight increases of solids concentration result in enormous increases in viscosity. In the latter range it appears that the swollen particles occupy most of the volume and are rubbing on one another and intermeshing. Figure 7 , shows the swollen, largely unbroken sacs common to the very thick, essentially raw starches; Figure 8 shows the broken and swollen pieces found in a heavy paste of a highly soluble dextrinized starch. A plot of the rate of increase of viscosity with successive units of concentration gives three separate slopes indicating free suspensions at low solids; a second range apparently corresponds to some intermeshing; and there is a final range where apparently the mass of swollen particles all rub on one another. Figure 9 shows that the logarithm of the viscosity is a straight-line function of the concentration only over very short ranges of viscosity, and that the Rask and Alsberg relation (11) cannot be generally used (7). The apparent viscosities of mixtures of starches are interesting; Figure 10 covers such experiments and shows that a t least the mechanical and physical phenomena determining the apparent viscosities are additive and sum up as expected from the data for the individual starches when the raw or slightly modified starches alone are considered. I n these cases the volume of the swollen grains is probably the main determining factor as indicated by Hixon (7). As the data also show, viscosities for mixtures with highly soluble starches are not additive, and other factors besides the actual volumes of the grains become important.
60
7ot
/ 3
4
PERCENT CHLORINE APPLIED TO STARCH
CORNSTARCHES FIGURB 13. DATAO N OXIDIZED
Viscosity vs. Modification
Figure 11compares the graphs secured on a mixture of corn and tapioca starches where the strength figures and the apparent viscosity units are plotted against per cent solids. The
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distortion caused by the strength scale is apparent. The data in Figures 9 and 11 cover samples taken progressively during dextrinization, and the shift t o thinner starches is noted. The progress of dextrinization is better followed, however, by a curve drawn from these data for cases where the cooked pastes all contain a constant amount of starch, such as in Figure 12.
0''
k 150 200 250 2 100
50
strength scale or yardstick. I n line with the known sensitivity of starches to acids even a t room temperature, the dextrinization starts off immediately the heat is applied and appears through most of the early part of its course to proceed at a linear rate. A series of corn starches oxidized in aqueous suspension a t 110' F. with various amounts of free chlorine, based on the starch and supplied as sodium hypochlorite, gave the peculiar set of curves in the upper graph of Figure 13; the picture simplifies when the data are plotted against apparent viscosity units, as in the lower graph. Since the variation in viscosity in this series of starches is large, curves a t several constant solids contents are shown. I n Figure 14 this difficulty is overcome, since the curves read for constant viscosity conditions. The two sets of curves taken together would indicate that successive units of chlorine applied to the starch have approximately the same apparent viscosity-lowering effect, or that the viscosity lowering is directly proportional to the percentage of chlorine applied to the starch. The upper graph of Figure 15 gives the data of Gallay (5) on the apparent viscosity or strength of cornstarch during various times of treatment in suspension with hydrochloric acid leading to formation of acid thin-boiling starches. The data were determined in a funnel like that used by the writers. The data are not on cooked staroh pastes, but on starches dissolved in one per cent sodium hydroxide. The data straighten out when plotted as apparent viscosity units (Figure 15, lower graph). The process proceeds with respect to time in a fashion much like that found with the closely related but different dextrinizing conditions already described.
Literature Cited (1) Bingham, E., "Fluidity and Plasticity", New York, McGrawHill Book Co., 1922. (2) Buel, H., Orig. Com. 8th Intern. Congr. A p p l . Chem., 13, 63-82 (1912). (3) Caesar, G. V., IND.ENG.CHEM.,24, 1432-5 (1932). (4) Farrow, F. D., and Low-e, G. M., J . Textile Inst., 14, T414-40 (1923). (5) Gallay, TV., and Bell, A. C., Can. J . Research, 14, No. 10,360-72 (1936). (6) Glarum, S. X.?Am. Duestuf Reptr., 25, No. 6 , 150-7 (1936). (7) Hixon, R. M., and Brimhall, B., Cereal Chem., 19, 425-40 (1942). (8) Hixon, R. M., and Brimhall, B., IXD.ENG.CHEM.,ANAL.ED., 11, 358-61 (1939). (9) Morgan, W. L., Ibid., 12, 313-17 (1940). (10) Porst, C. E. G., and Moskowitz, M. J., IND. ENG.CHEM.,14, 49-52 (1922). (11) Rask, 0. S., and Alsberg, C. L., Cereal Chem., 1, 7-26 (1924). (12) Williamson, R. V., IND. ENG.CHEM.,21, 1108-11 (1929). PRESENTED before the Division of Sugar Chemistry a t the 102nd Meeting of the AMRRICAN CH~MICAL SOCIETY, Atlantic City, N. J
01
1
50
I
I
I
I
100 200 TIME IN MINUTES
'
1
FIGURE 15. PREPARATION OF ACID THINBOILIKG CORNSTARCHES (CONSTANT TEMPERATURE, 122' F.)
Coal in the Manufacture of Synthetic Rubbers-Correction In the Kovember, 1942, issue an error occurs on page 1384 in Figure 1. The butadiene formula over the arrow in the lower right-hand corner pointing to BUTYL should be the formula for isobutylene : CHs
+CH~-~--CH~
Here, where the strength plot indicates relatively little change in the first hour which might readily be misinterpreted as a heating-up or induction period, it is clear from the plot using the apparent viscosity units that no such period occurs; the apparent period comes from the distortion existing in the
I appreciate having this error called t o my attention by Charles F. Smith, Jr., of Buffalo. HARRY L. FISHER E. S. INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS, INC. STAMFORD, CONN.
