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The structure and activity changes of phytohemagglutinin from red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) affected by ultra-high pressure treatments Yunjun Lu, Cencen Liu, MouMing Zhao, Chun Cui, and Jiaoyan Ren J. Agric. Food Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • Publication Date (Web): 28 Sep 2015 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on October 17, 2015
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ABSTRACT
24
Phytohaemagglutin (PHA) purified from red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)
25
by Affi-gel blue affinity chromatography, was subjected to ultra-high pressure (UHP)
26
treatment (150, 250, 350, 450 MPa). The purified PHA lost its haemagglutination
27
activity after 450 MPa treatment, and showed less pressure tolerance than crude PHA.
28
However, the saccharide specificity and α-glucosidase inhibition activity of the
29
purified PHA did not change much after UHP treatment. Electrophoresis staining by
30
perodic acid-Schif (PAS) manifested that the glycone structure of purified PHA
31
remained stable even after 450 MPa pressure treatment. However, electrophoresis
32
staining by Coomassie blue, as well as circular dichroism (CD) and differential
33
scanning calorimetry (DSC) assay, proved that the protein unit structure of purified
34
PHA unfolded when treated at 0-250 MPa, but re-aggregates at 250-450 MPa.
35
Therefore, the haemagglutination activity tends to be affected by protein unit structure,
36
while the stability of glycone structure contributed to the remaining of α-glucosidase
37
inhibition activity.
38
KEYWORDS
39
Ultra-high
40
pressure
treatment;
Phytohemagglutinin;
Haemagglutination; α-glucosidase inhibition
41 42 43
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Red
kidney
bean;
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INTRODUCTION
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Lectins represent a group of carbohydrate-binding proteins that agglutinate cells
46
or precipitate glycoconjugates.1 Phytohaemagglutinin (PHA), one of the three main
47
types of plant lectins, is commonly found in leguminous plants and can combine with
48
membrane receptors.2 Among various kinds of legumes, red kidney beans (Phaseolus
49
vulgaris) contains the highest concentration of PHA3, which is a tetrameric
50
combination
51
erythrocyte-specific (E).4 From previous researches, PHA has been found to
52
demonstrate distinct potential bioactive effect, such as antitumor5, 6, antifungal7,
53
antiviral8, mitogenic9,
54
Besides, PHA as a bioprobe could be applied to structural analysis of lectin
55
oligosaccharides through its characteristic of saccharide specificity.12
formed
of
10
two
subunits,
lymphocyte-specific
(L)
and
and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activities11.
56
Despite of these health-promoting benefits based on the pharmaceutical concern,
57
from the food safety point of view, PHA is also considered as an anti-nutritional
58
factor, which must be destroyed during food processing. The influence of PHA are
59
indicated by a loss of epithelial resistance which may lead to an acute gastroenteritis13,
60
and PHA would be fatal when ingested at high concentration14. Therefore, effective
61
processing approach must be taken to make PHA inactivation before PHA-containing
62
legumes are consumed as food.
63
Generally speaking, PHA had two remarkable characteristics. On one hand, it
64
binds specific monosaccharides or oligosaccharides reversibly, and facilitates
65
erythrocyte agglutinating or precipitating, which make it an anti-nutritional factor. On 3
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the other hand, PHA could inhibit the activity of α-glucosidase effectively 15, 16. As an
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α-glucosidase inhibitor, it could postpone the transformation of polysaccharides and
68
disaccharides to glucose by invertible inhibition towards α-glucosidase of intestinal
69
brush border membrane. As a consequence, PHA might contribute to the regulation of
70
blood sugar level after meal, or increase the insulin secretion mildly and continuously.
71
From previous researches, α-glucosidase played an important role in the pathogenesis
72
of some serious diseases such as diabetes, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
73
infection
74
researches on α-glucosidase inhibitor had biological and practical significance.
17
and cancer, showing enormous potential on illness treatment. Therefore,
75
Heating is the traditional processing technique to limit the toxicity of PHA, but
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PHA is relatively resistant to thermal denaturation, so it takes a long processing time
77
to inactivate the PHA18, which would consume more energy, reduce the food quality
78
and cause the destroy of some useful bioactivity such as the α-glucosidase inhibition
79
activity. Ultra-high pressure treatment (UHP), a new processing technology, has the
80
superiority of less energy consumption, lower treatment temperature and more
81
nutrition maintenance. Ultra-high pressure technology was applied in more and more
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food production, such as fruit juice, jam19 and peas20, since Hite21 had found that UHP
83
can be used to sterilize milk in 1899. The mechanism of UHP based on the changing
84
molecular volume through ultra-high pressure, which would destruct and restrict the
85
chemical bonds of protein molecules if the change is big enough. Therefore, UHP can
86
induce the changes of secondary and tertiary structures of the protein molecules,
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which has been indicated by plenty of researches.22-25 Our previous work26 has 4
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investigated the effect of ultra-high pressure treatment towards red kidney bean
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homogenates and found that UHP could impact the haemaggiutination activity and
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change the structure of crude red kidney bean PHA.
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In the present study, the effect of UHP treatment with different pressure levels
92
(150, 250, 350, 450 MPa) on the bioactivities of purified PHA including
93
haemagglutination activity, saccharide specificity activity and α-glucosidase
94
inhibition activity were studied. Besides, the underlying principles about how high
95
pressure changing these activities were also explored by the analysis of structural
96
conformation variations and the thermal behavior changes. The results from this work
97
might supply helpful information for using UHP processing techniques to enhance the
98
safety use of red kidney bean concerning PHA as its anti-nutritional, and also keep its
99
α-glucosidase inhibition activity as a beneficial factor.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
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Materials
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The raw material, dried red kidney beans, were obtained from Vanguard
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Supermarket (Guangzhou, China). Red blood cells in buffer (Human group B,
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glutaraldehyde treated) and the ɑ-glucosidase were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St.
105
Louis, MO, USA). The trypsin (2 × 103 U/g) was acquired from Sanye Biochemistry
106
Co. (Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China). Affi-gel blue gel and dialysis membrane (D36 mm,
107
6000-8000 Da) were purchased from Bio-Rad Laboratories (Shanghai) Co., Ltd.
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(Shanghai,
109
Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Molecular weight protein markers were
China).
The
p-N-phenylb-D-glucopyranoside
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gained
from
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purchased from Dinguo Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). The
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trishydroxymethylaminomethane,
112
methylene diacrylamide were purchased from GEN-VIEW Scientific Inc. (Florida,
113
USA). All other chemicals used in the present study were of analytical or higher
114
grade.
115
Extraction and Purification of PHA
β-mercaptoethanol,
acrylamide
and
116
The process of PHA extraction and purification were simply hint in Figure 1.
117
The beans were homogenized in a blender (National Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan) after
118
soften by steeping in Tris-HCl buffer (10 mM, pH 7.4, 1:10, w/v) at 4 °C for 6 h.
119
Later, the homogenates were incubated at 4 °C for 36 h, and then centrifuged in a
120
CR22G high-speed centrifuge (Hitachi Co., Tokyo, Japan) at 8,000 g at 4 °C for 30
121
min after filtered through 4-layers of gauze. The supernatants were lyophilized by
122
ALPHA 1-2LD PLUS lyophilizer (Marin Christ, Germany) to gain the crude PHA.
123
The obtained lyophilized sample was then purified by the affinity
124
chromatography purification on an Affi-gel blue (Bio-Rad, USA) column according
125
to the method of Ye et al17 with some modifications. Briefly, the lyophilized samples
126
were dissolved in Tris-HCl buffer (10 mM, pH 7.4) to make a final concentration of
127
10 % (w/v) and then the sample solution was loaded on an Affi-gel blue gel column
128
(2.5 × 20 cm) which had been equilibrated with the same buffer. The unbound
129
proteins were all removed by washing the column with Tris-HCl buffer (10 mM, pH
130
7.4), and then the adsorbed proteins were eluted with 10 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.4)
131
containing 1.4 M NaCl. Later, the collected elution was dialyzed against double 6
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distilled water for 36 h at 4 °C by changing water every 4 h. The dialyzed fractions
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were lyophilized for further analysis.
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Ultra-High Pressure (UHP) Treatment
135
The lyophilized samples were dissolved in the phosphate buffer (10 mM, pH 7.4)
136
to obtain a concentration of 6 mg/mL (m/v) and divided into five equal aliquots. Each
137
sample was placed in double polyethylene sealable bags before vacuum sealing in a
138
DZ-280/2SD multi-functional vacuum packaging machine (Jinqiao Technology
139
Electronic Equipment Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Dongguan, Guangdong, China) and
140
made sure that no headspace was left. The vacuum sealed packages were subjected to
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UHP-treatment in a high-pressure vessel (KEFA Hitech Food Machine Co., Ltd.,
142
Baotou, Neimenggu, China) at 25 °C with a filling volume of 5 L. The pressure
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transmitting medium was oil. Untreated samples of purified PHA were used as control
144
(atmospheric pressure 0.1 MPa at 25 °C). The samples subjected to UHP treatment
145
were conducted in triplicate at 150, 250, 350 and 450 MPa respectively, holding for
146
15 min. The pressure increase and release rate were about 100 MPa/min and 200
147
MPa/min, respectively. All the samples with or without UHP treatments in the plastic
148
bag were lyophilized and preserved in a desiccator within 2 months for further
149
analyses.
150
Haemagglutination Assay
151
The suspension of red blood cells (type B) were washed with phosphate buffer
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(10 mM, pH 7.4) 3 times before pipetting into a 96-well microtiter V-plate (Dinguo
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Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) for the haemagglutination assays. The 7
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lyophilized samples of purified PHA were dissolved in the phosphate buffer (10mM,
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pH 7.4) containing 0.15 M NaCl to obtain a concentration of 6 mg/mL (m/v). Then
156
each sample (25 µL) was serially diluted two-fold, and added to each well with 25 µL
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of blood. After incubated at 37 °C for about 40 min, the agglutination was determined
158
visually. The erythrocytes in the phosphate buffered saline (negative control) were
159
considered fully sedimented when a small dot was observed at the bottom of the well.
160
The haemagglutination titer was defined as the reciprocal of the highest dilution
161
exhibiting haemagglutination. This was assigned a value of one haemagglutination
162
unit.26, 27
163
Saccharides Specificity
164
The saccharide specificity of PHA was determined by the haemagglutination
165
assay after mixing different saccharides with the purified PHA. The monosaccharides
166
(glucose, galactose, xylose, ribose and rhamnose), disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and
167
maltose) and glycoconjugates (mannitol, glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid) were
168
dissolved separately in distilled water to obtain final concentration of 250 mM/L for
169
each saccharide. The solutions were pipetted into a 96-well microtiter V-plate, and
170
then the purified PHA was added at 25 °C and incubated about 10 min. After that, the
171
haemagglutination activity for each treated solution and the control (no PHA) was
172
tested as described above.
173
The α-Glucosidase Inhibition Assay
174
The α-glucosidase inhibition assay was modified based on the methods of Ye et
175
al.17 The ɑ-glucosidase was dissolved in MES-HCl buffer (10 mM, pH 6.4) to make 8
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the final concentration of 0.05 U/L, and then it was added into each well in a 96-well
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microtiter plate. Later, the purified PHA with or without UHP treatment were pitted
178
into the well respectively, and incubated with the α-glucosidase at 37°C for 10 min.
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Then the substrate, p-N-phenylb-D-glucopyranoside (2 mM), was added to start the
180
reaction. After 15 min, 2 M NaOH (pH 10.0) was pitted to each well to terminate the
181
reaction. The absorbance of the solution was measured at 400 nm.
182
Averages of three replicates are presented. The α-glucosidase inhibition rate was
183
defined as the follow expression.
184
Inhibition Rate % =
185
Where A1 was the absorbance of the control with MES-HCl buffer instead of
−
186
purified PHA; A2 was the absorbance of the sample treated by purified PHA.
187
Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE)
188
The PHA constituents were subjected to SDS-PAGE analysis using a 12%
189
acrylamide separating gel and a 5% acrylamide stacking gel containing 0.1% SDS by
190
an electrophoresis apparatus (Bio-Rad Laboratories, California, USA). The
191
lyophilized purified PHA sample was dissolved in Tris-HCl buffer (60 mM, pH 8.8),
192
which contains 2% SDS, 5% 2-mercaptoethanol, 25% glycerol and 0.1%
193
bromophenol blue. And then the solution was heated in boiling water for 5 min,
194
centrifuged at 10,000 × g for 3 min, and then loaded to the electrophoresis gel. A
195
cocktail of protein standards were used as markers, containing rabbit phosphorylase b
196
(97.4 kDa), bovine serum albumin (66.2 kDa), rabbit actin (43.0 kDa), bovine
197
carbonic anhydrase (31.0 kDa), and trypsin inhibitor (20.1 kDa). Each sample (15 µL) 9
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and the protein standard cocktail (15 µL) were loaded onto a gel lane, respectively.
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After electrophoresis, 0.25% Coomassie Brilliant Blue-R250 in 50% trichloroacetic
200
acid was applied to stain the gel for the protein chain and then the Perodic acid schif
201
(PAS) was used to stain for the saccharide chain. Finally, the gel was destained in
202
methanol/acetic acid/water (1:1:8, v/v/v).
203
Circular Dichroism (CD) Spectroscopy
204
CD measurements were performed on a Jasco J-810 spec-trometer (Jasco
205
International Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) using nitrogen as protective gas and the
206
temperature was controlled by a constant thermostat during samples running. The
207
measurements were done using cuvette with 1 mm path length at 25°C. As for far-UV
208
region (250-190 nm) assay, the sample concentration 0.125 mg/mL was used for
209
measurements, while for near-UV region (300-250 nm) analysis, the sample
210
concentration tested was 2.5 mg/mL. The spectra were recorded using a scan speed of
211
100 nm/ min and the data were collected at 0.2 nm intervals. Each scan was set to
212
repeat five times in order to eliminate signal noise and finally averaged scan was
213
given by the instrument to be considered as the final result. The data obtained were
214
normalized by subtracting the baseline recorded for the blank. The phosphate buffer
215
without PHA was used as blank. Secondary structure estimates (α-helix, β-sheet and
216
β-turn) were analyzed by the method of K2D.
217
Differencial Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
218
The thermal behaviour of PHA samples with or without pressure treatments was
219
measured by a TA Q100-DSC thermal analyzer (TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, 10
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USA). The indium standard was used to calibrate the calorimeter. The lyophilized
221
purified PHA samples (2.0 mg) were placed into coated aluminium pans. And then 20
222
µL of phosphate buffer (pH 7.4, 20 mmol/L) was added to the pans which was
223
hermetically sealed by then. The pans were incubated at 4 °C for at least 4 h before
224
the measurements. As for the measurements, the pans were heated in the calorimeter
225
from 25 to 120 °C at a heat rate of 5 °C/min and the nitrogen gas was used to control
226
temperature at the input rate of 30 mL/min. A pan without PHA sample was used as
227
control. From the thermograms, the denaturation temperature (Td) and denaturation
228
enthalpy (∆H) were acquired through the Universal Analysis 2000 software, Version
229
4.1D (TA Instruments-Waters LLC). All experiments were conducted in triplicate.
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Statistical Analysis
231
Data processing was accomplished with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA),
232
by the software of SPSS Version 19 for Windows (SPSS Inc.). Significant differences
233
between means (p < 0.05) were identified using the least significant difference (LSD)
234
test.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
236
Haemagglutination Assay
237
The hemoagglutinating activity of PHA was on account of its capacity to bind to 28, 29
238
red blood cells.
239
with their interactions with specific carbohydrate residues on the cell membrane
240
structure
241
Haemagglutination was indicated by the formation of a PHA-erythrocyte-PHA matrix.
and
The ability of PHA samples to haemagglutinate was associated
their
three
dimensional
structure of
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27,
30,
31
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The dense dots that sedimented to the bottom of the well were showed as negative in
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Figure 2(A), which manifested no agglutinin activity and hence indicated the absence
244
of agglutinin. For comparison, the haemagglutination concentration were shown in
245
Figure 2(B), which represented the lowest concentration of PHA to induce the
246
agglutination of erythrocytes. After purified by Affi-gel blue affinity chromatography,
247
PHA demonstrated great increase on haemagglutination activity, as proved by the fact
248
that the haemagglutination concentration of the purified PHA (0.19 mg/mL) was
249
about 4 times lower than that of crude PHA (0.75 mg/mL). As also indicated by
250
Figure 2 (B), the variation trend of the purified PHA was almost the same as that of
251
the crude samples with the increase of pressure levels (150, 250, 350, and 450 MPa).
252
The visible haemagglutination activities and the haemagglutination titers of the
253
purified PHA under UHP treatments were shown in Figure 2(A). It was found that
254
high pressure treatment could cause obvious decrease of the hemoagglutinating
255
activity. The titer was 23 U at 0.1 MPa treatment but decreased to 22 U at 150 MPa.
256
Almost 50 % of the hemoagglutination activity of PHA were destroyed when the
257
treatment pressure was further increased to 250 - 350 MPa. Finally, the titer was
258
reduced to 20 U at 450 MPa. It indicated that the high pressure treatment led to the
259
structure changes in PHA, which may either effect the glycone chain or protein
260
configuration.
261
Saccharide Specificity
262
The specificity of PHA is usually defined by the saccharides (or other saccharide
263
analogues) that could specifically recognized by PHA. The saccharide specificity of 12
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the purified PHA with or without UHP treatment was determined by the inhibition of
265
hemagglutinating activity (Figure 2C). It was found that untreated purified PHA (at
266
normal atmosphere 0.1 MPa) showed no specific inhibition on hemagglutination with
267
the addition of monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, xylose, ribose and rhamnose),
268
disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose) or glycoconjugates (mannitol, glucuronic
269
acid and galacturonic acid). It appeared that untreated PHA samples did not exhibit
270
saccharide specificity towards the tested monosaccharides, disaccharides and
271
glycoconjugates. Just as R. Loris 32 also reported, it had not been clear so far that what
272
kind of saccharide could be specifically recognized by PHA from red kidney beans,
273
which belongs to the glycoprotein group termed “complex”. And the complex type of
274
legume lectins had a similar structure that the hydrogen bones binding with the
275
specific monosaccharide were removed and compensated by protein-carbohydrate
276
hydrogen bonds. Therefore, these complex specific groups of lectins were not
277
inhibited by any simple saccharide. As also shown in Figure 2(C), high pressure
278
treatments (150, 250, 350 and 450 MPa) did not change the saccharides specificity of
279
PHA. It seemed that PHA was quite tolerant towards high pressure treatment at even
280
450 MPa treatment.
281
The α-Glycosidase Inhibition
282
Carbohydrates that digested to monosaccharides could be absorbed through the
283
intestine. The inhibitors of α-glucosidase could be able to prevent the digestion of
284
carbohydrate and reduce the content of blood sugar. Therefore, they have been used
285
as drugs for diabetes mellitus type 2.33 In the present study, the ɑ-glucosidase 13
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inhibitory effects of the PHA samples were illustrated in Figure 2(D). The purified
287
PHA samples (at normal atmosphere 0.1 MPa) without high pressure treatments
288
exhibited strong ɑ-glucosidase inhibitory activity (39.9%). After 150 MPa UHP
289
treatment, the PHA samples showed slightly decreased inhibitory activity against
290
a-glucosidase, but it still remained to be 35.4%. Particularly, even after 450 MPa UHP
291
treatment, the PHA sample could also keep above 60 % of its original activity. The
292
PHA structure especially the saccharide chain structure characteristics contributed to
293
its α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, and minor changes that happened to the structure
294
might induce huge changes of its activity. Therefore, the remained α-glucosidase
295
inhibitory activity after UHP treatment further proved that the glycone units of PHA
296
processed high pressure tolerance.
297
Taken both hemoagglutinating activity and α-glucosidase inhibition activity into
298
consideration, the results revealed that UHP treatment could destroy the undesirable
299
hemoagglutinating activity of PHA, and at the same time keep the beneficial
300
α-glucosidase inhibition activity, making UHP-treated PHA a potential diabetes
301
treatment products. Besides, ɑ-glucosidase was related to HIV-1 envelope protein gp
302
120, a surface glycoprotein located on the viral coat, which was required to interact
303
with the human CD4 glycoprotein in order to initiate entry into the cells. Thus, the
304
glucosidase-inhibitory activity of purified PHA was also involved with anti-HIV
305
activity, which was supported from the findings of Ye et al. 17
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SDS-PAGE Analysis
307
SDS-PAGE was conducted to explore the effects of UHP treatment on the 14
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subunit changes of PHA samples. Figure 3(A) shows the electrophoretic patterns
309
stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue-R250, which demonstrated the changes of
310
protein subunits in PHA. The band with a molecular weight of about 31 kDa
311
prominently presented in each sample, corresponding to the basic subunit of PHA as
312
previously reported.3 As a comparison, the sample that underwent 450 MPa pressure
313
treatment revealed two additional bands, one with low intensity located between 66.2
314
- 97.4 kDa and another located between 43.0 - 66.2 kDa. It indicated either the protein
315
subunits with high molecular weight disrupted or low molecular weight fractions
316
aggregated, as declared in our previous study. Similar phenomenon had been
317
observed on soy bean protein, with the dissociation of subunits after high pressure
318
treatment. 34
319
PAS staining used in electrophoresis is a very important technique to explore the
320
saccharide binding situation in glycoprotein molecules, which illustrates the
321
glycol-protein structure changes. In the present study, PAS staining of SDS-PAGE
322
profiles was performed and the gel was shown in Figure 3(B). It seems that no
323
obvious changes were observed for lanes running PHA samples with or without UHP
324
treatment (150, 250, 350 and 450 MPa). The results further confirmed that the
325
glycone units of PHA were more stable and less sensitive to the pressure treatment as
326
compared with the protein units of PHA.
327
Circular Dichroism (CD) Spectroscopy
328
The near UV-CD spectra of protein mainly reflected the conformation of
329
side-chains. The peak of tyrosine (Tyr) was mainly at about 275 nm, and the 15
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migration of this peak was usually used as the indicator for structure change. A near
331
UV-CD spectra for PHA undergone different pressure treatments was shown in Figure
332
4. A red shift of 1-2 nm in the peak of tyrosine was found in purified PHA treated with
333
0-250 MPa. When treated with 350 MPa pressure, a peak indicating the interaction of
334
phenylalanine (Phe) and tyrosine (Tyr) was shown at 268 nm, and another peak
335
derived from the mutual effect of both tyrosine (Tyr) and tryptophan (Trp) residues
336
was found at 285 nm. As for 450 MPa treatment, a significant red shift of 3 nm in the
337
Tyr peak was observed as compared with that of the untreated PHA (0.1 MPa).
338
Compared with our preceding study35, PHA may have maximum mean at around 285
339
nm due to the side chains of Tyr and Trp residues, which was similar in the near
340
UV-CD spectra after UHP treatment.
341
The far UV-CD (190 - 250 nm) spectra represents the range of absorption peaks
342
of peptide bond, reflecting the conformation of protein backbone. The secondary
343
structure compositions of purified PHA samples with different UHP treatments were
344
shown in Table 1. Although the content of α-helix and β-sheet structures found in this
345
study seemed to be different with other kinds of legume lectins, the spectra were quite
346
similar with that found in our previous study35, which showed that the PHA purified
347
by two-step affinity chromatography was with 52.8% α-helix and 20.6% β-sheet.
348
From 0-250 MPa, the increase of pressure induced the expansion of protein
349
structure, indicated by the decrease of the ordered α-helix structure proportion and the
350
increase of β-sheet structure proportion. Also, the disordered structure ratio increased.
351
As the pressure further increased from 250 - 450 MPa, it forced the formation of 16
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protein aggregation through non-covalent interaction, which caused the increase of
353
α-helix structure ratio and the decrease of disordered structure ratio. Similarly, the
354
high pressure treatment had same effects on the isolated soy protein, for example,
355
Puppo
356
the ordered protein structure was partly destroyed through ultra-high pressure
357
treatment.
358
Thermal Behavior
36
found the surface hydrophobicity of soy isolate protein was promoted and
359
Endothermic effects seen with DSC thermograms are mainly attributed to the
360
disruption of intra and intermolecular bonds. The denaturation peak temperature (Td)
361
can be used to monitor the thermal stability of protein, and the enthalpy value (∆H) is
362
correlated with the proportion of undenatured protein or the extent of ordered protein
363
structure.37 The denaturation peak temperature (Td) and the enthalpy value (∆H) of
364
PHA treated by different pressures were shown in Figure 5. When the treated pressure
365
was lower than 250 MPa, the Td of PHA (100.06 °C) increased with the raise of
366
pressure compared to that of the native PHA (97.34 °C). However, the Td of purified
367
PHA decreased slightly at 350 MPa treatment, and then went up to the highest level
368
(101.19 °C) at 450 MPa. In addition, a significant decrease in the enthalpy value (∆H)
369
from 2.413 to 1.319 J/g was seen with the enhancement of pressure from 0.1 to 250
370
MPa. While from 250 to 450 MPa, the ∆H increased from 1.319 to 2.458 J/g indicated
371
first a decrease then an increase tendency in the thermo stability of PHA, showing that
372
the higher pressure treatment may induce the expansion and aggregation in protein
373
structure of the PHA. In general, high pressure treatment could cause the expansion or 17
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aggregation of PHA protein structure and exert effects on the thermal stability of PHA,
375
as indicated by CD spectroscopy.
376
CONCLUSIONS
377
The results from this work demonstrated that ultra-high pressure (UHP)
378
treatment had more obvious effects on haemagglutination activity of purified PHA
379
than crude PHA samples. Also, in terms of the three bioactivities of PHA (e.g.
380
haemagglutination activity, saccharide specificity and α-glucosidase inhibition
381
activity), we found that only haemagglutination activity was sensitive to UHP
382
treatment, while the saccharide specificity and the α-glucosidase inhibition activity
383
were barely influenced. The underlying mechanism was revealed by protein units and
384
glycone units structure analysis.
385
The results were shown simply in Figure 6. As for protein units analysis, the
386
electrophoretic analysis stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue-R250 demonstrated the
387
disruption of high-molecular-weight protein subunits or the aggregation of
388
low-molecular-weight protein fractions for purified PHA treated at 450 MPa. As a
389
consequence, the haemagglutination activity of the purified PHA was almost
390
completely destroyed. Also, the data from both CD spectroscopy and DSC analysis
391
revealed the protein untis of purified PHA were very sensitive to pressure treatment,
392
resulting in the re-aggregation at 250-450 MPa. Therefore, the destroying of its
393
haemagglutination activity after high pressure treatment might be more likely to be
394
associated with the change of the PHA protein units. As a comparison, the glycone
395
untis of purified PHA was much stable towards UHP treatment as illustrated by PAS 18
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staining electrophoresis. Accordingly, the α-glucosidase inhibition activity did not
397
change much after UHP treatment.
398
Therefore, the results from this work proved that UHP processing seemed to be
399
an effective way to protect the α-glucosidase inhibition activity as a beneficial factor
400
of PHA, while destroy its haemagglutination activity as an anti-nutritional factor. This
401
might supply useful information for further utilization of PHA from red kid bean.
402
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
403
The authors are grateful to the Guangdong Natural Science Funds for
404
Distinguished Young Scholars (No.S2013050013954), Program for New Century
405
Excellent Talents in University (NCET-13-0213), the Fundamental Research Funds
406
for the Central Universities (02-2015) and Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product
407
Processing, Ministry of Agriculture, P.R.China (NYJG201402).
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phytohaemagglutinin from red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) purified by different affinity
516
chromatography. Food Chem. 2008, 108, 394-401.
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Physicochemical modifications of high-pressure-treated soybean protein isolates. J. Agric. Food. Chem.
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FIGURES CAPTIONS
525
Figure 1. The flow chart for the extraction, purification and UHP treatment of PHA
526
from red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).
527
Figure 2. The effects of UHP treatment on different activities of PHA. (A) The visible 24
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528
haemagglutination titers of the purified PHA. The erythrocytes were considered no
529
agglutination when a small dot was observed at the bottom of the well. The
530
concentration of purified PHA was 1.5 mg/mL at the haemagglutination titer of 20.The
531
negative group was treated with PBS instead of PHA. (B) The haemagglutination
532
concentration of crude and purified PHA, representing the lowest concentration of
533
PHA to induce the agglutination of erythrocytes. (C) The saccharide-binding
534
specificity of purified PHA. Line 1-11 represents for glucose, galactose, xylose, ribose,
535
rhamnose, mannitol, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, sucrose, lactose and maltose,
536
respectively. The final concentration of each saccharide was 250 mmol/L. The signal
537
“-” means no agglutination activity, while “+” represents the sample has agglutination
538
activity, which reveals the PHA does not inhibit by the saccharide. (D) The
539
α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of purified PHA. The reaction was conducted in 0.05
540
U/L of ɑ-glucosidase and 8 mg/mL of purified PHA at 37 °C for 15 min.
541
Figure 3. SDS-PAGE pattern of purified PHA samples treated by ultra-high pressure.
542
(A) Electrophoresis conducted with Coomassie Brilliant Blue-R250 staining; (B)
543
Electrophoresis conducted with PAS staining. Lane 1-5 represent purified PHA
544
samples by 0.1 MPa, 150 MPa, 250 MPa, 350 MPa and 450 MPa of high pressure
545
treatments. M represents for protein molecule marker.
546
Figure 4. Near UV-CD spectra of purified PHA samples by UHP treatment.
547
Figure 5. Changes in thermal properties of UHP treatment PHA. Different letters
548
within a column are significantly different (P < 0.05).
549
Figure
6.
The
assumed
structure-bioactivity
(haemagglutination
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550
saccharide-binding specificity and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity) relationship of
551
purified PHA as affected by UHP treatment.
Figure 1
Extraction Homogenization
Extraction
Red Kidney Beans
Centrifugation
Oil
Lyophilization
PHA
Crude PHA
Purification
Affinity chromatography
Dialysis
Ultra-high pressure treatment Purified PHA
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(A)
(C)
(B)
(D)
Figure 2 27
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Figure 3 B
A
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Figure 4
3
2
CD (medg)
1 275 nm
285 nm
0
450 MPa 350 MPa 250 MPa 150 MPa 0.1 MPa
-1
-2
240
250
260
270
280
290
Wavelengh (nm)
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300
310
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Figure 5 Td 104
∆H a
a
2.5
2.0
b 102
a
c b
100
c
1.0
d 98
1.5
0.5
e
0.0
-0.5
96 0.1
150
250
350
Pressure (MPa)
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450
∆H (J/g)
Td(°C)
c
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Figure 6 α-helix
PHA-E/L monomer
β-sheet
Glycone
Ø
UHP 0-250 MPa
Protein Unit Change Protein Chain Expansion Glycone Unit Stable
α-helix
Disorder structure
Glycone
UHP 250-450 MPa
Ø
Haemagglutination Activity Lost
Saccharide Specificity Unchanged
Protein Chain Folded
Glycone units
α-helix
Disorder structure
β-sheet
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Table 1. Secondary structure compositions of purified phytohemagglutinin samples treated by ultra-high pressure. Pressure (MPa)
α- Helix (%)
β- Sheet (%)
Other (%)
0.1
49.95
11.13
38.92
150
42.92
13.58
43.50
250
33.10
16.86
50.04
350
44.17
14.22
41.61
450
47.14
12.48
40.38
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