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Summary of the ACS symposium "Public Health Perspectives of Mycotoxins in Food" Lauren S. Jackson, and Dojin Ryu J. Agric. Food Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b02909 • Publication Date (Web): 27 Jul 2017 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on July 31, 2017

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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

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Summary of the ACS Symposium

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Public Health Perspectives of Mycotoxins in Food

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Lauren S. Jackson*† and Dojin Ryu‡

4 †

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U.S. Food and Drug Administration

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Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition

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Office of Food Safety

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Division of Food Processing Science & Technology

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6502 South Archer Road, Bedford Park, IL 60501

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(708) 924-0616 (Phone)

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(708) 924-0690 (Fax)

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[email protected]

13 14

‡

University of Idaho/Washington State University

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School of Food Science

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875 Perimeter Drive MS 2312

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Moscow, ID 83844-2312

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(208) 885-0166 (Phone)

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(208) 885-2567 (Fax)

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[email protected]

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*Corresponding Author

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KEYWORDS: Mycotoxins, Toxicity, Public Health, Control, Occurrence, Detection

1 ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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Abstract

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A symposium entitled “Public Health Perspectives of Mycotoxins in Food” was held at the 251st

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American Chemical Society Meeting in March 2016 in San Diego, CA and was sponsored by the

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ACS Division of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. The purpose of the symposium was to

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convene the leading mycotoxin researchers throughout the world to discuss the current state of

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knowledge as well as research needs with respect to evaluating the toxicological properties of

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mycotoxins, and ways to detect, control and reduce human and animal exposure to these natural

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toxins.

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government and industrial institutions from North America, Europe, Asia and Africa. The

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presentations covered such diverse topics as a historical perspective on the discovery of the

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major fungal toxins, occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed, toxicological properties of

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mycotoxins and their influence on public health, analytical methods for mycotoxins, pre- and

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post-harvest control of mycotoxins, and regulatory aspects. This article is intended to provide a

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brief summary of the presentations as well as a record of the proceedings of the symposium.

Twenty-three presentations were delivered by speakers representing academic,

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Mycotoxins are ubiquitous, toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi, with

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Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species producing the majority of the toxins of concern

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to human and animal health.1-3 These fungal metabolites are responsible for pre- and post-

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harvest contamination of agricultural commodities used for human food and animal feed. While

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an overall incidence of mycotoxin contamination of human food is not currently known, recent

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surveys suggest that greater than 30% of animal feed and feed ingredients are contaminated with

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at least one mycotoxin.4-8

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contamination is estimated to range from $418 million to $1.66 billion, which do not include

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mitigative costs and livestock losses of $466 million and $6 million, respectively.9

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Mycotoxins can cause a wide range of chronic health effects in animals and humans exposed to

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small amounts of toxins over an extended period of time. In addition, mycotoxins can cause

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acute effects and be lethal if consumed in large quantities over a short time.1 Health-related

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effects of mycotoxins depend the age and nutritional status of person or animal exposed, the

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extent of exposure to the mycotoxin and other toxic compounds, and the toxicological properties

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of the mycotoxin.1-3 The ubiquitous nature and highly toxic nature of some fungal toxins

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illustrate the importance of ensuring that mycotoxin contamination is minimized to reduce the

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risk of human and animal exposure.10

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To discuss and evaluate the current status of mycotoxin research, a symposium entitled “Public

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Health Perspectives of Mycotoxins in Food” was held March 15-16, 2016 at the 251st ACS

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National Meeting in San Diego, CA. The symposium consisted of 23 presentations delivered by

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recognized scientists from the U.S., Canada, Europe, Asia and Africa, and covered such diverse

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topics as general properties of mycotoxins found in food and feed, toxicological effects of

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mycotoxins and the influence they have on public health, detection and analysis of mycotoxins in

In the U.S. alone, annual losses of crops due to mycotoxin



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food, and approaches for control and regulation of mycotoxins. This article is intended to

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provide a brief summary of the presentations as well as a record of the proceedings of the

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symposium.

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presenters which cover many of the topics discussed in the symposium.

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The introductory session provided an overview of mycotoxin research history, occurrence of

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mycotoxins in food and feed, and environmental and climatic conditions that influence fungal

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growth and mycotoxin production.

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Australia), provided a historic perspective of mycotoxin research. In his talk, Dr. Pitt reviewed

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the major mycotoxins including ergot, rice toxins (citreoviridin, citrinin, luteoskyrin and

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cyclochlorotine) aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol and zeararalenone, from a historical

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context, and more specifically how these toxins were discovered and their effects on human and

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animal health.

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environmental changes such as fluctuations in temperature and rainfall, and their potential role in

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the types and extent of fungal and toxin contamination in agricultural commodities. Dojin Ryu

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(University of Idaho, Moscow, ID) reviewed the major fungi and mycotoxins associated with

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cereal grain and cereal-based foods, discussed co-occurrence of fungal toxins in grain and its

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possible public health significance, and concluded that there is a need for improved monitoring

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programs and research to establish science-based control measures and regulatory limits for

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mycotoxins. A final paper in this section, presented by Franz Berthiller (University of Natural

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Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Tulln, Austria) reviewed the occurrence, toxicological

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significance and analysis of “emerging mycotoxins”. Included in this discussion were masked

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mycotoxins, chemically-modified mycotoxin derivatives that are undetectable by conventional

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analytical techniques, changes in distribution of mycotoxins in various regions of the world, and

Following this overview article are twelve papers authored by symposium

A keynote presentation, given by John Pitt (CSIRO,

David Miller (Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) presented on


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the “emerging mycotoxins” (culmorin, beauvericin and enniatins), mycotoxins which are not

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regulated, but where there is evidence that their incidence is increasing.11

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The second session of the symposium was devoted to presentations on identification and use of

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biomarkers to estimate human and animal exposure to fungal toxins, and the toxicological

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properties and public health consequences due to the presence of mycotoxins in food and feed.

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As developing countries often lack the resources to prevent and control mycotoxin accumulation

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in agricultural commodities, populations in these regions of the world are at a higher risk of

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exposure to these natural toxins.12,13 Paul Turner (University of Maryland, College Park, MD)

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gave a presentation studies that evaluated exposure of children living in Western Africa to

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aflatoxin-, deoxynivalenol- and fumonisin-contaminated dietary staples. These studies found a

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possible association of consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated food with growth stunting and

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other health-related problems in these populations.

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Ghent, Belgium) presented the results of a study that assessed exposure of infants from different

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regions of Tanzania to multiple mycotoxins (aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin, zearalenone,

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fumonisins, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin) present in corn, an important dietary staple for these

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populations.

Analice Kamala (University of Ghent,

The results of this study indicate that exposure varied among the different agro-

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ecological regions of Tanzania, and that children receiving corn-based complementary foods in

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Tanzania are at a high risk of exposure to multiple toxins, particularly aflatoxin and fumonisins.

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Two presentations in this session were given on identification and use of biomarkers for

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estimating exposure to fungal toxins. The first, delivered by Michele Solfrizzo (CNR, Institute

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of Sciences of Food Protection, Bari, Italy), focused on identification and use of urinary

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biomarkers in humans and animals for estimating exposure to the major mycotoxins (aflatoxin

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B1, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, fumonisin B1 (FB1), and deoxynivalenol).

Ronald Riley 5

ACS Paragon Plus Environment


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(USDA/ARS, Athens, GA) discussed the results of a study that examined the use of urinary and

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blood biomarkers to determine exposure to FB1 in human populations in Guatemala. The results

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of this study as well as other research studies reviewed by Dr. Riley indicate that urinary FB1

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levels and red blood cell sphiganine/sphingosine ratio are correlated, and that both biomarkers

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could be used to predict when individuals are at increased risk for exceeding the Provisional

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Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI) established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert

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Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Another major research finding is that individuals

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exposed to high levels of fumonisins from the diet experienced sphingolipid metabolism changes

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similar to those seen when animals and cell cultures were dosed with these mycotoxins alone.

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Several presentations reviewed the toxicological properties of mycotoxins, focusing on their

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specific target organs such as the liver, kidney and the brain. Matthias Behrens (University of

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Munster, Munster, Germany) discussed studies that discovered that some mycotoxins

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(deoxynivalenol, moniliformin, citrinin, zearalenone) have a high permeability to the blood-brain

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barrier which potentially leads to high brain exposure to these toxins, while other toxins such as

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ochratoxin A (OTA) reduce the viability and integrity of the blood-brain barrier. OTA, an

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International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Group 2B carcinogen (possibly

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carcinogenic to human), is a frequent contaminant of cereal grains and other agricultural

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commodities.14 Genevieve Bondy (Health Canada) reported on studies that assessed the effects

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of OTA on rats with kidney cancer and toxicity as evaluated the toxicological endpoints.

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Investigations on the mechanisms by which OTA binds to DNA to form adducts were reviewed

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by Richard Manderville (University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada).

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indicated that ability of OTA to form DNA adducts may be used to develop an aptasensor for

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detecting OTA.

His talk also


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The third session of the mycotoxin symposium covered approaches for pre-harvest control of

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mycotoxin formation, as well as ways to post-harvest ways to bind, degrade or detoxify toxins

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present in food or feed.

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include: (1) cultural practices that prevent or reduce crop damage and the levels of toxigenic

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fungi or crop damage in the field, (2) biological control through the use of microorganisms that

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compete with the toxigenic fungi and/or prevent their outgrowth and production of mycotoxins,

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and (3) enhancing host resistance through plant breeding and/genetic engineering.1,14 Charles

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Bacon (USDA/ARS) reviewed the use of endophytic microorganisms, particularly those that

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produce quorum sensing inhibitors, as biocontrol agents for mycotoxic fungal endophytes, such

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as the Fusarium species.

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accomplished by using nonaflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus strains that out-compete wild

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aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains present in the field. Hamed Abbas (USDA-ARS, Stoneville,

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Mississippi) reviewed improvements in aflatoxin biocontrol treatments through the use of

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bioplastic materials (corn starch and other biodegradable raw materials) that act as nutritive

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carriers of the biocontrol agents. The complex interplay of factors affecting plant resistance to

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fungal attack and mycotoxin production, biochemical and chemical markers for resistance in

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corn to aflatoxin contamination, and the use of plant breeding and genetic engineering to confer

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crops with resistance to fungal infection and toxin accumulation were discussed by Deepak

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Bhatnagar (USDA/ARS, New Orleans, LA).

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Approaches for post-harvest control of mycotoxins include: (1) practices that prevent fungal

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growth and toxin production during storage of agricultural commodities and food, such as

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controlling moisture levels, temperature and addition of preservatives, (2) processing methods

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that remove mycotoxin-contaminated grain or food stream or inactivate or detoxify preformed

Strategies to reduce mycotoxin contamination in crops pre-harvest

Reduction of aflatoxin contamination in harvested crops is



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toxin (e.g. sorting, milling, thermal processing), (3) chemical treatments that modify and

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detoxify mycotoxins, and (4) binding agents that suppress or reduce absorption, promote

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excretion, or modify the mode of action of mycotoxins.1,14 Ken Voss (USDA/ARS, Athens, GA)

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gave a presentation on studies that evaluated the effects of different food processing treatments

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on the toxicological properties of fumonisin present in corn-based foods using rodent bioassays.

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The studies found that extrusion processing was effective at reducing fumonisin toxicity,

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particularly when glucose was added to the corn prior to processing. In contrast, nixtamalization

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(an alkaline cooking method) effectively detoxified fumonisin-contaminated corn at lower

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contamination levels while reducing, but not preventing, toxicity at a higher contamination level.

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Post-harvest control of mycotoxins was a subject of a review by Gerd Schatzmayr (BIOMIN

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Research Center, Tulln, Austria). His presentation focused on the use of clays and other agents

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to bind and inhibit absorption of mycotoxins present in feed. Other approaches discussed were

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the use of microbiological agents and enzymes which can be used to biotransform or degrade

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mycotoxins into forms of reduced toxicity.

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Awareness of the significant impacts of mycotoxins on animal and human health has led to the

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development of analytical methods for their identification and surveillance in food and feed. The

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wide range of crops, commodities and agricultural systems in which mycotoxins can be found,

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presents a challenge for effective analyses. The fourth session of the symposium focused on

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tradition as well as state-of-the art methods for detection of mycotoxins. Sarah De Saeger

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(University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium) provided a comprehensive review of immunochemical

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methods used for rapid screening for mycotoxins. These methods include traditional ELISA

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assays and more recently developed multiplex fluorescent immunoassays that use quantum dots

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rather than enzymes for detection. The improvements in immunoassay sensitivity, stability and 8 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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selectivity through the use of nanobodies were discussed by Candace Bever (University of

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California-Davis, Davis, CA). Nanobody-based techniques differ from the traditional ELISA as

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the antibodies are made in bacterial cells by expression of engineered fragment of the variable

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antibody region.

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Hong-Li Guo (Tsinghua University, Beijing, China) gave a presentation on a new planar

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waveguide fluorescence immunosensor for rapid detection of aflatoxin M1 and melamine in

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milk.

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mycotoxins in a variety of human and animal food and feed products was highlighted in a

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presentation by Kai Zhang (U.S. FDA, College Park, MD). The benefits of such a method

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include sensitivity, selectivity, and the ability to detect and quantify a variety of analytes in a

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single analysis.

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Research Center, Tulln, Austria), focused on the tools to determine the identity, occurrence and

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toxicity of masked mycotoxins.

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Regulations relating to mycotoxins have been established in over 100 countries to protect

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humans and animals from exposure to these hazardous compounds.16 Factors which play a role

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in the decision-making process of setting limits for mycotoxins including the availability of

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toxicology and occurrence data, procedures for sampling and analysis, and socio-economic

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factors. The final two presentations of the symposium discussed regulation of mycotoxins in

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Canada and the U.S. Genevieve Bondy (Health Canada, Ottawa, Canada) outlined the different

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federal agencies in Canada that research and regulate mycotoxins, Canadian involvement in

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committees responsible for international standard-setting for mycotoxins and other chemical

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contaminants in food, surveillance and monitoring activities in Canada, the considerations

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involved in setting maximum levels for chemical contaminants in food, and Canadian regulations

A new stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS-based method for detecting at least 12

The final presentation in this session, given by Veronika Nagl (BIOMIN



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and maximum levels governing mycotoxin residues in food. Mycotoxin regulations in the U.S.

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were described in a presentation by Henry Kim (U.S. FDA, College Park, MD). In his talk, Dr.

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Kim discussed FDA’s regulatory authority and role in ensuring the safety of the U.S. food

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supply, factors that impact establishment of regulatory limits for chemical contaminants such as

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mycotoxins, approaches for controlling mycotoxins, and regulatory limits for several of the

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mycotoxins of public health concern.

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We thank the ACS Division of Agricultural and Food Chemistry for sponsoring the symposium,

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and the symposium speakers and attendees for their informative presentations and lively

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discussions. We are grateful to Thomas Hofmann, Ivonne Hofmann-Sellier and Journal of

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Agricultural and Food Chemistry editors for the invitation to publish papers corresponding to

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symposium presentations and for facilitating the manuscript submission and review process. We

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hope that the following set of articles will constitute a valuable record and resource for

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continuing progress in the scientifically challenging and vitally important field of mycotoxin

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research.

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Lauren S. Jackson

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U.S. Food and Drug Administration

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Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition

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Office of Food Safety

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Division of Food Processing Science & Technology


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6502 S. Archer Rd.

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Bedford Park, IL 60501

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Dojin Ryu

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School of Food Science

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University of Idaho/Washington State University

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875 Perimeter Drive MS 2312

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Moscow, ID 83844-2312

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Funding :

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No funding was received to support the publication of this article.

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References:

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1. Bhat, R. ; Rai, R.V. ; Karim, A.A. Mycotoxins in food and feed: Present status and future

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concerns. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Food Safety 2010, 9, 57-81.

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2. CAST (Council for Agricultural Science and Technology). Mycotoxins: Economic and Health

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Risks. Task Force Report No. 116, 1989, Council for Agricultural Science and Technology,

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Ames, IA.



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3. CAST (Council for Agricultural Science and Technology). Mycotoxins: Risks in Plant,

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Animal and Human Systems. Task Force Report No. 139, 2003, Council for Agricultural Science

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and Technology, Ames, IA.

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mycotoxins in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2007, 137,

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265-282.

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5. Rodrigues, I.; Naehrer, K. A three-year survey on the worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins

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in feedstuffs and feed. Toxins 2012, 4, 663-675.

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6. Streit, E.; Schatzmayr, G.; Tassis, P.; Tzika, E.; Marin, D.; Taranu, I.; Tabuc, C.; Nicolau, A.;

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Aprodu, I.; Puel, O. Current situation of mycotoxin contamination and co-occurrence in animal

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feed- Focus on Europe. Toxins 2012, 4, 788-809.

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7. Streit, E.; Naehrer, K.; Rodrigues, I.; Schatzmayr, G. Mycotoxin occurrence in feed and feed

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raw materials worldwide: Long-term analysis with special focus on Europe and Asia. J. Sci.

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Food Agric. 2013, 93, 2892-2899.

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8. Pinotti, L.; Ottoboni, M.; Giromini, C.; Dell’Orto, V.; Cheli, F. Mycotoxin contamination in

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the EU feed supply chain: A focus on cereal byproducts. Toxins 2016, 8, 45

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9. Vardon, P.J.; McLaughlin, C.; Nardinelli, C. Potential economic costs of mycotoxins in the

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United States. In Mycotoxins: Risks in Plant and Human Systems, Chapter 10. CAST (Council

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of Agriculture, Science and Technology) Task Force Report No. 139, 2003, pp. 136-142. Ames,

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IA.

Binder, E.M.; Tan, L.M.; Chin, L.J.; Handl, J.; Richard, J.

Worldwide occurrence of


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10. Mitchell, N.J.; Bowers, E.; Hurburgh, C.; Wu, F. Potential economic losses to the US corn

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industry from aflatoxin contamination. Food Addit. Contam. 2016, 33, 540-550.

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11. Vaclavikova, M.; Malachova, A.; Veprikova, Z.; Dzuman, Z.; Zachariasova, M.; Hajslova, J.

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‘Emerging’ mycotoxins in cereals processing chains: changes of enniatins during beer and bread

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making. Food Chem. 2013, 136, 750−757.

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12. Wu, F. Mycotoxin risk assessment for the purpose of setting international regulatory

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standards. Environ. Sci. & Technol. 2004, 38, 4049-4055.

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13. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Mycotoxin Control in Low- and

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Middle Income Countries. IARC Working Group Report No. 9, Wild, C.P., Miller, J.D., and

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Groopman, J.D. (Eds), WHO Press, World Health Organization, 2015, Geneva, Switzerland.

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Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27030861 Accessed 6/19/2017.

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14. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Practical approaches to control

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mycotoxins. IARC Sci. Publ. 2012, 158,131-46.

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Substances: Food Items and Constituents, Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxins.

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IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. 1993, Volume 56

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IARC; Lyon, France.

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16. van Egmond, H.P.; Schothorst, R.C.; Jonker, M.A. Regulations relating to mycotoxins in

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food. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2007, 389,147–157.

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Some Naturally Occurring

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