Superhydrophobic Functionalization of Cotton Fabric via Reactive Dye

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Materials and Interfaces

Superhydrophobic Functionalization of Cotton Fabric via Reactive Dye Chemistry and a Thiol-ene Click Reaction Amanda S Brown, Mack E Bozman, Tanner J Hickman, Mohammad I Hossain, T. Grant Glover, Kevin Neal West, and Christy Wheeler West Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b03258 • Publication Date (Web): 28 Aug 2019 Downloaded from pubs.acs.org on August 30, 2019

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Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research

Superhydrophobic Functionalization of Cotton Fabric via Reactive Dye Chemistry and a Thiol-ene Click Reaction Amanda Brown, Mack Bozman, Tanner Hickman, Mohammad I. Hossain, T. Grant Glover, Kevin N. West, Christy Wheeler West* Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688

ABSTRACT: A straightforward method for imparting superhydrophobic character to cotton textiles using methods based in textile processing and organic synthesis was developed. Cotton fabric was first treated with a common dye anchor, cyanuric chloride, which was subsequently reacted with cysteamine to yield a thiol function on the surface. Thiol-ene click chemistry was employed to attach alkyl chains to render the surface hydrophobic. Effects of temperature and reaction time on the click reaction step were investigated to optimize the process, and a water contact angle exceeding 150°C was obtained at 100°C and 60 minutes. Furthermore, it was shown that both AIBN and hydrogen peroxide are effective initiators for the click reaction. The efficacy of the resulting textile in separating hydrocarbons from water was demonstrated.

This

straightforward preparation of a superhydrophobic textile is most promising in that it is accomplished without incorporating perfluorinated functional groups or nanoparticles.

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INTRODUCTION

In 1997, Barthlott and Nienhuis reported on their elucidation of the mechanism of the so-called “lotus effect.”1 They showed that the famed water repellency and self-cleaning ability of the lotus leaf resulted from a synergy of microscopic roughness and non-polar functional groups at the surface. Since then, numerous efforts have focused on synthesis of biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces. This includes the functionalization of cotton textiles and other cellulose-based materials for a variety of applications, addressed in some recent reviews.2-3 The superantiwetting character of these materials renders them potentially suitable as self-cleaning textiles and in oil/water separation processes. Much of the research on developing superhydrophobic surfaces, commonly defined as those having contact angles with water exceeding 150°,4 has involved micro- and nano-engineering of cellulosic materials, by such diverse methods as dip coating, electrophoresis, and plasma etching.3 Some early attempts investigated the grafting of fluoropolymers to cotton surfaces as an effective means of creating surfaces with special wettability characteristics.5-7 perfluoroalkylsilanes

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Other studies used

or fluorinated polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes12-14 to achieve a

superhydrophobic effect. Most of the work in superhydrophobic textile treatments aims to impart nanoscale roughness by incorporation of metal or metal oxide nanoparticles, such as nanostructured ZnO, SiO2, and TiO2 coatings.15-16 Often the metal oxide particle surfaces are themselves functionalized with hydrophobic groups.17 In numerous cases, the oxide nanoparticles serve as anchors for fluorinated chains or siloxanes.18-23 The most recent advances incorporate TiO2 nanoparticles with a combination of fluorinated groups and siloxane groups.24-25 Another recent study employs a straightforward preparation involving immersion in a solution of trichloro(octadecyl)silane and (pentafluorophenyl)triethoxysilane.26


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While numerous methods for preparing textiles with water contact angles exceeding 150° have been demonstrated, research is turning toward development of methods that are amenable to commercial textile processing. Other factors that must be considered are safety and environmental effects resulting from applications of the textiles. While perfluoroalkyl chains having less than eight carbons are less prone to bioaccumulation than longer ones, avoiding the use of fluorine is still desirable from a health and environmental perspective.27 Reducing the requirement for fluorinated precursors also presents an economic advantage. A further consideration is the as yet little-known effect of nanoparticles in biological systems.28-29 This is particularly important for deployment of superhydrophobic textiles in natural environments, such as in marine oil spill remediation, or in applications involving direct human interaction, as in clothing or health care products. Herein is reported a straightforward and versatile method for yielding a superhydrophobic cotton fabric, using a technique grounded in common textile industry practice. It first employs a traditional dye anchor, cyanuric chloride, and subsequent steps involve readily available, inexpensive precursors.30 This follows prior work in our group attaching nanostructures to cellulose via reactive dye chemistry.31-32 The final step in the synthesis exploits “click” chemistry techniques and can be modified by a simple change in precursor to impart a wide range of chemical and physical characteristics.33 Notably, our synthesis of superhydrophobic cotton textiles does not include toxic and environmentally pervasive fluorinated compounds. Furthermore, it does not employ metal oxides or any nanostructured roughness, but instead fixes hydrophobic functional groups to the cellulose using covalent bonds.


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MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials.

Cyanuric chloride (99%) and Ellman’s reagent [5,5′-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic

acid)](99%) were obtained from Acros Organics, reagents cysteamine (95%) and and azobisibutyronitrile (AIBN, 98%) from Sigma Aldrich, and cysteine (98+%) from Alfa Aesar. Other chemicals employed in the synthesis were produced by Fisher Chemical in the following purities: cysteine (98+%), aqueous hydrogen peroxide (3.0-3.5%), chloroform (99.8%), tetrahydrofuran (ACS Certified), and sodium carbonate (99.5+%). Alkenes used for hydrophobic functionality were hexadecene (94%, Alfa Aesar) and octene (99+%, Acros Organics). Hydrocarbons for the the oil/water separation demonstrations were hexanes (96+%, Fisher Chemical) and toluene (99.8%, Alfa Aesar), and the dyes for beading demonstrations were methylene blue (Acros Organics) and Sudan 1 (TCI). Hexadecane (Acros Organics, 99+%) was used as a solvent in the demonstrations. All reagents were used as received. White 100% cotton woven fabric was obtained from a textile retailer. Functionalization of cotton fabric. The synthetic sequence for preparation of superhydrophobic cotton fabric is shown in Scheme 1. Before the synthetic steps, the fabric was washed in acetone and dried. Next, a fabric swatch was pretreated with an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate (10 mass%) for 10 minutes at 60°C. The pretreatment wets the fabric with the alkaline solution needed to neutralize the hydrochloric acid produced by the subsequent reaction. The fabric swatch was then transferred to a solution of 0.2 mass% cyanuric chloride (2) in chloroform and stirred at room temperature for one hour. Following this attachment of the cyanuric chloride anchors to the cellulose strands (3), the fabric was moved to a room temperature aqueous solution containing 2 mass% cysteamine (4) and stirred for 24 hours. It was then washed in water and dried. Both cyanuric chloride and cysteamine are used in excess relative to the fabric swatches. The thiol


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Scheme 1. Synthesis steps for covalent attachment of hydrophobic chains to cellulose substrate.

OH

OH OH

OH HO O

HO

1) aq. Na2CO3, 60°C

O

HO

O Cl

OH OH

O

OH O

n

1

O

HO O

2)

N

N N

Cl

, CHCl3, RT

N

3

N

Cl N

Cl

2

Cl

OH

4

HS

n

OH

NH2

O

HO O

HO

3 aq, RT

O

OH O 5

N

n N

N

HN

Cl

SH

OH OH 1) AIBN/THF or aq. H2O2, RT HO

5 2)

O

OH

, 80-120°C

R

O

HO O O

6 7

N

N N

HN

n

Cl

S

R

function (5) provides a site for a radical thiol-ene reaction to attach alkenes containing desired functional groups. The dried fabrics were immersed in a solution of a thermal initiator, 3 mass% azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) in tetrahydrofuran, at room temperature for 10 minutes. The solvent OH

OH

CN N

N

HO

O

HO O

O

OH CN ACS Paragon Plus Environment

O N

n N

5


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was then evaporated from the sample. In some experiments, 3% aqueous hydrogen peroxide replaced the AIBN solution. Finally, the fabric is transferred to neat hexadecene at a prescribed temperature. The thiol-ene reaction takes place, adding the thiol across the double bond with antiMarkovnikov stereochemistry, and attaching the desired functional group (6). The effects of reaction times ranging from 30-120 minutes and temperatures from 60-130°C were investigated. After the synthesis was complete, the fabric was washed repeatedly in acetone to remove any residual alkene. Fabric swatches were then dried under vacuum for 24 hours. Thiol test.

A thiol indicator was made by preparing 0.025 M aqueous 5,5′-dithiobis(2-

nitrobenzoic acid), known as Ellman’s reagent.34 Using a pipette, a portion of the thiol indicator was dripped onto a fabric sample. If the fabric turned a bright yellow, then the preparation treatment was successful in attaching the cysteamine linker to the dye anchor. It should be noted that as this test is reactive, the fabric sample cannot be used in subsequent synthetic steps. IR characterization. Fabric samples were analyzed using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy on a Thermo Scientific Nicolet iS50 spectrometer utilizing a Smart iTX Diamond accessory. Samples were analyzed averaging 64 scans and the data shown is shifted but not rescaled. Water contact angle measurement. Water contact angles were measured using a Biolin Theta Lite TL100 goniometer. Data is collected for each sample using a 10-second scan with 15 frames per second collected. The contact angles are automatically determined for both the left and right sides via polynomial fits using OneAttension with manual baseline assignment. Oil/water separation. A superhydrophobic fabric membrane was used to separate mixtures of hydrocarbons and water. In those experiments, a swatch of the treated fabric was held in a ground glass joint between a flask and funnel. A 20-mL sample of a hydrocarbon, either hexanes or toluene, were combined with a 20-mL sample of water. These were stirred to mix and quickly


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poured over the membrane. The permeate was collected and analyzed using a Metrohm 851 Titrando.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Spectroscopic monitoring of reaction steps.

Infrared spectroscopy was used to follow the

addition of functional groups to the fabric in the synthetic sequence. The spectra shown in Figure 1 represent the starting material and the products of each step in Scheme 1. Note that the spectrum is dominated by that of cellulose, but there are subtle yet notable changes after each step. Following the attachment of cyanuric chloride to the fibers, the most significant change from spectrum A to spectrum B are the bands in the range from 1500 to 1800 cm-1. These bands are characteristic of the aromatic ring in cyanuric chloride, and they are evident in the subsequent spectra as well. Other features of interest in spectrum B are the three small signals between 750 and 830 cm-1. These bands are in the region in which C-Cl stretching appears. Following the next step in the fabric treatment, the substitution of a chloride on the aromatic rings, this region shows only a single peak at 790 cm-1. Because the chlorides of cyanuric chloride are deactivated with each subsequent substitution, it is expected that the final chloride remain on the ring, and spectrum C is consistent with that prediction.35 The predominant difference in the final spectrum (D) is the appearance of the sp3-hybridized C-H stretching band centered at wavenumbers 2850 cm-1 and 2920 cm-1 resulting from the presence of the long alkyl chain. Characteristic bands representing sp2-hybridized =C-H bonding, such as the stretching bands between 3000 cm-1 and 3100 cm-1 in the spectrum of hexadecene, are not evident, indicating that the repeat washings following the synthesis were effective in removing residual alkene and that the hydrophobic behavior results from bound alkyl groups.


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A

B

% Transmittance

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

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C

D

4000

3500

3000

2500 2000 Wavenumber (cm-1)

1500

1000

500

Figure 1. IR spectra of fabric at each step in the synthesis. A: untreated fabric. B: following treatment with cyanuric chloride. C: following treatment with cysteamine. D: following treatment with hexadecene.

Evaluation of superhydrophobicity. The hydrophobicity of the fabric is demonstrated in Figure 2. In the figure, water droplets containing methylene blue are shown on a superhydrophobic fabric swatch. As shown, the water droplets did not bleed into the fabric, in contrast with behavior of hexadecane, which is dyed orange with Sudan 1.


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a

c

b

d

Figure 2. Beading of water droplets on superhydrophobic fabric (a,c) compared with water on untreated fabric (b,d). Water is colored with methylene blue for visual impact. The swatches on the bottom (c,d) also demonstrate the oleophilicity with hexadecane containing Sudan 1.

The effectiveness of the fabric treatment was quantified using contact angle measurements, an established method for evaluating the hydrophobicity of a surface. Generally, a surface is defined as superhydrophobic if its contact angle with water exceeds 150°, though it has been proposed that an angle exceeding 145° is indicative of negligible water affinity.4, 36 As shown in Figure 3, the synthesis under optimized conditions produced fabric surfaces with contact angles exceeding 150°, within the superhydrophobic range. Repeated washing in acetone, up to twenty times, had a negligible effect on the measured contact angle, indicating that the superhydrophobicity was not a result of residual reagent on the fabric. These washes also demonstrate the durability of the superhydrophobic functionality for oil recovery applications. Effect of reaction temperature and time on thiol-ene click reaction step. The thiol-ene click reaction is initiated by the thermal decomposition of azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN). The AIBN is dispersed as a powder on the fabric swatch prior to immersion in the heated neat alkene. As shown in Figure 3 and Table 1, the water contact angle in the resultant fabric increased as the temperature


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increased from 30 to 100°C. An increase over 100°C did not result in a larger contact angle. This behavior indicates that at 100°C the decomposition of the initiator was rapid and complete, and thus not a limiting factor in the extent of reaction.

Table 1. Thiol-ene click reaction conditions and resulting water contact angles. Time Temperature Water contact angle Initiator Chain length (min) (°C) (°) AIBN

16

60

130

150

AIBN

16

60

110

151

AIBN

16

60

100

153

AIBN

16

60

80

130

AIBN

16

60

60

124

AIBN

16

30

100

141

AIBN

16

45

100

145

AIBN

16

60

100

153

AIBN

16

120

100

138

AIBN

8

60

100

103

H2O2

16

90

90

152

H2O2

16

300

80

153


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Water contact angle (°)

160 150 140 130 120 110 100 40

60

80 100 Temperature (°C)

120

140

160 Water contact angle (°)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60


150 140 130 120 110 100 20

40

60 80 Time (min)

100

120

140

Figure 3. Effects on the resulting water contact angle of temperature for a reaction time of 60 minutes (top) and time at a temperature of 100°C (bottom) during the click reaction attaching alkyl functions the treated fabric. Error bars are standard deviation of the means. The length of time required to achieve sufficient alkyl chain attachment to the cysteamine linker for superhydrophobic behavior was also investigated at 100°C. As the reaction time increased from 30 to 60 minutes, the water contact angle showed an incremental increase.

As the

decomposition of the AIBN to initiate the reaction should be rapid at this temperature, the increase


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in contact angle with time can be attributed to increased coverage of the fiber surface by alkyl chains as the reaction proceeds. A slight decrease was observed as the time was extended to 120 minutes, though it may not be statistically significant (p = 0.13) A possible explanation for a decrease in contact angle at a longer reaction time is deterioration of the fiber surface structure as it is held at 100°C. Further scouting experiments at temperatures as high as 180°C indicated that sufficient reaction with the alkene to yield superhydrophobic contact angles is possible in as little as 10 minutes, but it is expected that such high temperatures would result in structural degradation over longer times. Effect of alkyl chain length on superhydrophobicity. In addition to the primary experiments evaluating effects of the reaction conditions on product characteristics, the hydrophobicity of samples prepared with hexadecene and octene were compared. The experiments using octene were carried out at the conditions shown to yield optimal results with hexadecene: at 100°C for 60 minutes. While the samples prepared with octene were able to support a drop of water without penetration, the mean contact angle of samples prepared with octene was found to be significantly lower than those with hexadecene, 103° as compared to 153°. Effectiveness of H2O2 as thermal initiator. With the goal of improving safety and reducing cost of the synthesis, thus making it more industrially viable, we replaced the AIBN solution with 3% aqueous hydrogen peroxide. One result of this alteration was that the temperature of the alkene had to be reduced to 90°C, as immediate oxidation of the fabric was visually observed at 100°C in the peroxide solution. As shown in the data in Table 1, H2O2 was also an effective initiator for the addition of the thiol to the alkene. Contact angles again are above 150°. This is a notable result not only in yielding a superhydrophobic textile, but also in the chemistry employed in the


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synthesis. To our knowledge, it is the first reported example using hydrogen peroxide as an initiator in a thiol-ene click reaction. Effectiveness of cysteine as linker. A variation on the synthesis step that links thiol functionality to the cyanuric chloride anchor via was explored: the cyteamine linker was replaced with the more available and less expensive amino acid cysteine. Positive thiol tests with Ellman’s reagent following the attachment step confirm that the cysteine was effectively attached to the fabric. Negative tests for thiols following the click reaction with hexadecene indicate that the subsequent step to attach the alkyl group was successful as well. Despite the attachment of the hydrophobic functional groups to the surface, the resultant fabric was not hydrophobic.

This is likely

attributable to the hydrophilic carboxyl groups present in the amino acid function. Despite its detrimental effect on the hydrophobicity, the use of cysteine as a linker for click chemistry attachment of other functionality may be advantageous due to its lower cost. Surface morphology of superhydrophobic cotton fibers. As depicted in Figure 4, scanning electron microscopy does not show any residue or weathering of the fabric that would give rise to the superhydrophobic behavior. In fact, the SEM micrographs of the fabric before processing and after all steps are complete are indistinguishable when AIBN is used as thermal initiator. This provides evidence that the superhydrophobic functionalization is a result of covalent attachments rather than micro-structuring of the fiber surfaces. The SEM image when hydrogen peroxide is used to initiate the click reaction shows some breakage of the strands. This observation is consistent with the visible burning of the fabric that takes place if the H2O2 initiation takes place at 100°C. While hydrogen peroxide offers processing opportunities with a familiar chemical, optimization of reaction temperatures and times may be needed to maintain the structural integrity


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of the resulting textile. However, it is possible that the micro-level weathering of the strands may contribute to the texturization that contributes to hydrophobic behavior.

a

b 100 m

100 m

c 100 m

Figure 4. SEM images of cotton fabric before treatment (a) and after all synthetic steps using AIBN (b) and H2O2 (c). Oil/water separation. To demonstrate an application of the superhydrophobic textile, it was employed to separate a mixture of hexane and water. The demonstration is depicted in Figure 5, in which the water phase contains a blue dye. A piece of fabric treated with hexadecene was used to line a funnel, and the mixture of water and hexane were poured into it. As can be seen in the figure, the hexane permeated the fabric, while the water was retained, separating the mixture. The separation was further quantified by measuring the water content of the permeate using by Karl Fischer titration analysis. Following the procedure described in the methods section using a fabric membrane to separate the fabric, the moisture content in the organic permeate was found to be below the detection limits of the instrument, which is reportedly on the order of 10 ppm based on the 1-mL sample sizes used. Thus, the superhydrophobic fabric is highly effective at allowing oleic substances to pass while retaining water.


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Figure 5. Application of superhydrophobic fabric to separate oil and water. Left: A mixture of hexane and water (dyed blue). Center: The mixture is poured into a funnel lined with fabric treated by the methods described herein. Right: The oily substance has penetrated the fabric, but the water remains in the funnel.

4.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, this work developed a synthesis that consistently produced cotton fabric with water contact angles in the superhydrophobic range using only covalently bonded functional groups. In contrast with other investigations in synthesis of superhydrophobic cellulose materials, no nanoengineering or fluorinated compounds were involved, but rather reactions steps that should be amenable and even familiar in the textile processing industry. The material produced is highly effective in removing hydrocarbons from water, which should be particularly useful in environmental remediation of marine oil spills. The final step in the synthesis employs thiol-ene click chemistry to attach hydrophobic groups, and this step is sufficiently versatile that it should be useful for attaching a variety of functional groups and resulting behaviors to cotton or other cellulose surfaces. An additional important finding was that hydrogen peroxide was effective as a thermal initiator for a thiol-ene click reaction step in the synthesis. Current work is focused on developing a one-step attachment process enabled by the reacting the dye anchor, linker and


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hydrophobic alkyl chain to form a compound that can be directly attached to the cellulose in a single dyeing step.

AUTHOR INFORMATION Corresponding Author * Email: [email protected]. Telephone: 251-460-7463. Author Contributions The manuscript was written through contributions of all authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript. Funding Sources This material is based upon work supported in part by, the U. S. Army Research Laboratory and the U. S. Army Research Office under contract/grant number W911NF1510103. Additional financial support was provided from NASA Cooperative Agreement Notice NNH16ZHA001C Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research under contract NNX16AT47A and by the Center for Environmental Resiliency at the University of South Alabama. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Matthew Reichert in the Department of Chemistry at the University of South Alabama for assistance with the Karl Fischer analysis.


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Superhydrophobic Functionalization of Cotton Fabric via Reactive Dye

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