Sustainable Water Cleaning System for Point-of-Use Household

Downloaded by CENTRAL MICHIGAN UNIV on December 8, 2015 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date (Web): December 3, 2015 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2015-1206.ch014

Chapter 14

Sustainable Water Cleaning System for Point-of-Use Household Application in Developing Countries To Remove Contaminants from Drinking Water Bluyé DeMessie* William Mason High School, 6100 Mason-Montgomery Drive, Mason, Ohio 45040-1797, United States *E-mail: [email protected].

Sun-dried banana peel (BP) was pyrolyzed and activated to form a carbon-fiber adsorbent (PBP) with superior removal capacity for heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, suspended particles, and water-borne pathogens from drinking water. A point-of-use (POU) water treatment system, based on PBP adsorption, was evaluated with “synthesized” and real water samples. Pyrolysis of BP resulted in the formation of a large porous surface area that had strongly negative surface charges. Batch and continuous flow studies were conducted to determine the adsorption capacity and the rate of removal of pollutants. Heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, suspended particles, and water-borne bacteria were efficiently removed. The efficacy of adsorption to remove microorganisms was tested using a qPCR quantification technique to measure the concentration of Legionella pneumophila in the inlet and outstream of the POU device. The levels of Legionella pneumophila decreased from 9x106 CFU ml-1 to below detection limits, 85% removal efficiency), thus demonstrating the great potential for use of PBP in waters downstream of agriculture and agro-processing. 309 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Figure 17. Removal efficiency of heptachlor by PBP

Figure 18. Removal efficiency of chlordane by PBP 310 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Adsorption Mechanism Analysis of the solution during adsorption of Cu2+ indicated Ca2+, K+, and Na+ increased as more Cu2+ was adsorbed (Figure 19). This shows that other ions are released from PBP as counter ions in concentrations. The ζ-potential of spent PBP decreased in charge with the increase in the adsorbed concentration Cu2+ (Figure 20). This decrease suggests that an electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged PBP and the released metal ions also plays a role in the adsorption of metals and microorganisms to PBP. The overall metal adsorption efficiency must be related to the total number of surface functional groups available on the polysaccharide, that is, the cation exchange capacity (67). Figure 21 shows that the X-ray mapping techniques from SEM/EDX analysis comprised pseudo-colors that represented the homogeneous spatial distributions of Cu2+. The results show that the distribution of adsorbed Cu2+ was not uniform, which suggests that the PBP has heterogeneous surface composition. This shows uniform distribution of the heterogeneous surface of PBP. The pyrolyzed cellulosic material and rich mineral content of banana peel resulted in the mechanism for metal adsorption into PBP that was the combination of the ion exchange mechanism and the electrophoretic attraction of metal ions to the negatively charged surface.

Figure 19. Adsorption mechanism studies on the release of Na+, K and Ca2+ ions as Cu2+ adsorbed to PBP, 311 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Figure 20. Adsorption mechanism studies on the ζ-potential of spent PBP 50 mg with increased concentration of Cu2+ adsorbed.

Figure 21. SEM/EDX analysis of spent PBP with energy-dispersive X–ray spectrum showing pseudo-colors, representing the bidimensional spatial distributions of Cu2+. 312 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Conclusion The removal of heavy metal ions, persistent organic pollutants, suspended particles, and pathogens by adsorption in PBP was studied and compared with the adsorption onto a commercially activated carbon. Both the physical and chemical properties of the BP and activated carbon were measured. PBP is a novel, high-capacity and fast-acting adsorbent that effectively removed heavy metals and bacterial pathogens from water. The adsorption of Cu2+, Pb2+, heptachlor, chlordane, and L. pneumophila were studied using batch and continuous flow experiments. The superior adsorption capacity of PBP compared with other adsorbents is primarily attributed to its highly hydrophobic surface property, large surface area and the presence of a well-developed mesosphere that provides adsorptive filters with ion exchange systems. Multilayered columns containing sand and PBP can be used for POU systems to provide clean water to individual households. PBP can also be integrated with other media and applied for the removal of a wide range of pollutants. The components of such a POU system can be obtained in the rural areas of developing countries and manufactured at a low cost. One banana yields 4 g of PBP, which can be used to treat more than 40 L of contaminated water (C0 = 3 mg l-1 of Cu2+ and Pb2+ to below safe limits of 1.3 mg l-1 for Cu2+ and 0.015 mg l-1 for Pb2+). This method can be used to provide improved drinking water to households in developing countries by removing microbial and heavy metal contaminants. There is now conclusive evidence that simple, acceptable, low-cost interventions at the household and community levels are capable of dramatically improving the microbial quality of stored household water and reducing the risks of diarrheal disease and death. Future studies should include field testing of prototype units.

Acknowledgments The author would like to thank George Sorial, Shirley Rosenzweig, Ashraf Aly Hassan, Jingrang Lu, Ian Struewing, and Mallikarjuna Nadagouda for their time and effort in training and teaching the author to operate various analytic instruments and analyze data.

References 1.

2.

3.

Prüss‐ Ustün, A.; Bartram, J.; Clasen, T.; Colford, J. M.; Cumming, O.; Curtis, V.; Bonjour, S.; Dangour, A. D.; De France, J.; Fewtrell, L. Burden of Disease from Inadequate Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Low‐ and Middle‐ Income Settings: A Retrospective Analysis of Data from 145 Countries. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2014, 19, 894–905. Nyenje, P.; Foppen, J.; Uhlenbrook, S.; Kulabako, R.; Muwanga, A. Eutrophication and Nutrient Release in Urban Areas of Sub-Saharan Africa—a Review. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408, 447–455. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Recommendations; World Health Organization: 2004. 313 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

4. 5. 6.

7.


8.

9. 10. 11.

12. 13. 14.

15. 16.

17.

18. 19.

20.

Cheng, S. Heavy Metal Pollution in China: Origin, Pattern and Control. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2003, 10, 192–198. Li, X.; Poon, C.-s.; Liu, P. S. Heavy Metal Contamination of Urban Soils and Street Dusts in Hong Kong. Appl. Geochem. 2001, 16, 1361–1368. Nicholson, F.; Smith, S.; Alloway, B.; Carlton-Smith, C.; Chambers, B. An Inventory of Heavy Metals Inputs to Agricultural Soils in England and Wales. Sci. Total Environ. 2003, 311, 205–219. Reiter, L. W.; Anderson, G. E.; Laskey, J. W.; Cahill, D. F. Developmental and Behavioral Changes in the Rat During Chronic Exposure to Lead. Environ. Health Perspect. 1975, 12, 119. Olivares, M.; Pizarro, F.; Speisky, H.; Lönnerdal, B.; Uauy, R. Copper in Infant Nutrition: Safety of World Health Organization Provisional Guideline Value for Copper Content of Drinking Water. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 1998, 26, 251–257. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington DC, 2009. Järup, L. Hazards of Heavy Metal Contamination. Br. Med. Bull. 2003, 68, 167–182. Akpor, O.; Muchie, M. Remediation of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water and Wastewater Treatment Systems: Processes and Applications. Int. J. Phys. Sci. 2010, 5, 1807–1817. Duruibe, J.; Ogwuegbu, M.; Egwurugwu, J. Heavy Metal Pollution and Human Biotoxic Effects. Int. J. Phys. Sci .2007, 2, 112–118. Water Treatment Principles and Design; Crittenden, J. C., Trussel, R. R., Hand, D. W., Howe, K .J., Eds.; Wiley: New York, 1985. Rodan, B. D.; Pennington, D. W.; Eckley, N.; Boethling, R. S. Screening for Persistent Organic Pollutants: Techniques to Provide a Scientific Basis for Pops Criteria in International Negotiations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1999, 33, 3482–3488. Jones, K. C.; De Voogt, P. Persistent Organic Pollutants (Pops): State of the Science. Environ. Pollut. 1999, 100, 209–221. López, M. C. C. Determination of Potentially Bioaccumulating Complex Mixtures of Organochlorine Compounds in Wastewater: A Review. Environ. Int. 2003, 28, 751–759. Buccini, J., The Development of a Global Treaty on Persistent Organic Pollutants (Pops). In Persistent Organic Pollutants; Springer: New York, 2003; pp 13−30. Noronha, F. Persistent Organic Pollutants Pervade Asia; Environmental News Service: Bombay, India, 1998. Bhuiyan, M. N. H.; Bhuiyan, H. R.; Rahim, M.; Ahmed, K.; Haque, K. F.; Hassan, M. T.; Bhuiyan, M. N. I. Screening of Organochlorine Insecticides (Ddt and Heptachlor) in Dry Fish Available in Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Pharmacol. 2008, 3, 114–120. Colt, J. S.; Davis, S.; Severson, R. K.; Lynch, C. F.; Cozen, W.; Camann, D.; Engels, E. A.; Blair, A.; Hartge, P. Residential Insecticide Use and Risk of Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2006, 15, 251–257. 314 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


21. Minh, N.; Minh, T.; Kajiwara, N.; Kunisue, T.; Subramanian, A.; Iwata, H.; Tana, T.; Baburajendran, R.; Karuppiah, S.; Viet, P. Contamination by Persistent Organic Pollutants in Dumping Sites of Asian Developing Countries: Implication of Emerging Pollution Sources. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2006, 50, 474–481. 22. Kesavachandran, C. N.; Fareed, M.; Pathak, M. K.; Bihari, V.; Mathur, N.; Srivastava, A. K. Adverse Health Effects of Pesticides in Agrarian Populations of Developing Countries. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2009, 200, 33−52. 23. Dearth, M. A.; Hites, R. A. Chlordane Accumulation in People. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1991, 25, 1279–1285. 24. Loffredo, E.; D’Orazio, V.; Brunetti, G.; Senesi, N. Adsorption of Chlordane onto Humic Acids from Soils and Pig Slurry. Org. Geochem. 1999, 30, 443–451. 25. Ratola, N.; Botelho, C.; Alves, A. The Use of Pine Bark as a Natural Adsorbent for Persistent Organic Pollutants–Study of Lindane and Heptachlor Adsorption. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2003, 78, 347–351. 26. Huang, J.-C.; Liao, L. Adsorption of Pesticides by Clay Minerals. J. Sanit. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 1970, 96, 1057–1076. 27. Collier, S.; Stockman, L.; Hicks, L.; Garrison, L.; Zhou, F.; Beach, M. Direct Healthcare Costs of Selected Diseases Primarily or Partially Transmitted by Water. Epidemiol. Infect. 2012, 140, 2003–2013. 28. Snyder, J. D.; Merson, M. H. The Magnitude of the Global Problem of Acute Diarrhoeal Disease: A Review of Active Surveillance Data. Bull. World Health Organ. 1982, 60, 605. 29. Stevik, T. K.; Aa, K.; Ausland, G.; Hanssen, J. F. Retention and Removal of Pathogenic Bacteria in Wastewater Percolating through Porous Media: A Review. Water Res. 2004, 38, 1355–1367. 30. Xagoraraki, I.; Harrington, G. W.; Assavasilavasukul, P.; Standridge, J. H. Removal of Emerging Waterborne Pathogens and Pathogen Indicators by Pilot-Scale Conventional Treatment. J. - Am. Water Works Assoc. 2004, 102–113. 31. Woitke, P.; Wellmitz, J.; Helm, D.; Kube, P.; Lepom, P.; Litheraty, P. Analysis and Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in Suspended Solids and Sediments of the River Danube. Chemosphere 2003, 51, 633–642. 32. Bilotta, G.; Brazier, R. Understanding the Influence of Suspended Solids on Water Quality and Aquatic Biota. Water Res. 2008, 42, 2849–2861. 33. Fuchs, S.; Haritopoulou, T.; Schäfer, M.; Wilhelmi, M. Heavy Metals in Freshwater Ecosystems Introduced by Urban Rainwater Runoff—Monitoring of Suspended Solids, River Sediments and Biofilms. Water Sci. Technol. 1997, 36, 277–282. 34. Goulder, R. Attached and Free Bacteria in an Estuary with Abundant Suspended Solids. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1977, 43, 399–405. 35. Babel, S.; Kurniawan, T. A. Low-Cost Adsorbents for Heavy Metals Uptake from Contaminated Water: A Review. J. Hazard. Mater. 2003, 97, 219–243.

315 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


36. Kurniawan, T. A.; Chan, G. Y.; Lo, W.-h.; Babel, S. Comparisons of LowCost Adsorbents for Treating Wastewaters Laden with Heavy Metals. Sci. Total Environ. 2006, 366, 409–426. 37. Ngah, W. W.; Hanafiah, M. Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Wastewater by Chemically Modified Plant Wastes as Adsorbents: A Review. Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 3935–3948. 38. Ali, I.; Gupta, V. Advances in Water Treatment by Adsorption Technology. Nat. Protoc. 2006, 1, 2661–2667. 39. Demirbas, A. Heavy Metal Adsorption onto Agro-Based Waste Materials: A Review. J. Hazard. Mater. 2008, 157, 220–229. 40. Annadurai, G.; Juang, R.; Lee, D. Adsorption of Heavy Metals from Water Using Banana and Orange Peels. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 47, 185–190. 41. Low, K.; Lee, C.; Leo, A. Removal of Metals from Electroplating Wastes Using Banana Pith. Bioresour. Technol. 1995, 51, 227–231. 42. Deepa, B.; Abraham, E.; Cherian, B. M.; Bismarck, A.; Blaker, J. J.; Pothan, L. A.; Leao, A. L.; De Souza, S. F.; Kottaisamy, M. Structure, Morphology and Thermal Characteristics of Banana Nano Fibers Obtained by Steam Explosion. Bioresour. Technol. 2011, 102, 1988–1997. 43. DeMessie, B.; Sahle-Demessie, E.; Sorial, G. A. Cleaning Water Contaminated with Heavy Metal Ions Using Pyrolyzed Biochar Adsorbents. Sep. Sci. Technol. 2015, 50 (16), 2448, 2457. 44. Wong, K.; Lee, C.; Low, K.; Haron, M. Removal of Cu and Pb from Electroplating Wastewater Using Tartaric Acid Modified Rice Husk. Process Biochem. 2003, 39, 437–445. 45. Marshall, W.; Wartelle, L.; Boler, D.; Johns, M.; Toles, C. Enhanced Metal Adsorption by Soybean Hulls Modified with Citric Acid. Bioresour. Technol. 1999, 69, 263–268. 46. Wartelle, L.; Marshall, W. Citric Acid Modified Agricultural by-Products as Copper Ion Adsorbents. Adv. Environ. Res. 2000, 4, 1–7. 47. Thirumavalavan, M.; Lai, Y.-L.; Lin, L.-C.; Lee, J.-F. Cellulose-Based Native and Surface Modified Fruit Peels for the Adsorption of Heavy Metal Ions from Aqueous Solution: Langmuir Adsorption Isotherms. J. Chem. Eng. Data 2009, 55, 1186–1192. 48. Šćiban, M.; Klašnja, M.; Škrbić, B. Modified Softwood Sawdust as Adsorbent of Heavy Metal Ions from Water. J. Hazard. Mater. 2006, 136, 266–271. 49. O’Connell, D. W.; Birkinshaw, C.; O’Dwyer, T. F. Heavy Metal Adsorbents Prepared from the Modification of Cellulose: A Review. Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 6709–6724. 50. Bailey, S. E.; Olin, T. J.; Bricka, R. M.; Adrian, D. D. A Review of Potentially Low-Cost Sorbents for Heavy Metals. Water Res. 1999, 33, 2469–2479. 51. Sobsey, M. D.; Stauber, C. E.; Casanova, L. M.; Brown, J. M.; Elliott, M. A. Point of Use Household Drinking Water Filtration: A Practical, Effective Solution for Providing Sustained Access to Safe Drinking Water in the Developing World. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 4261–4267.

316 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


52. Al-Asheh, S.; Abdel-Jabar, N.; Banat, F. Packed-Bed Sorption of Copper Using Spent Animal Bones: Factorial Experimental Design, Desorption and Column Regeneration. Adv. Environ. Res. 2002, 6, 221–227. 53. Chen, J. P.; Lin, M. Equilibrium and Kinetics of Metal Ion Adsorption onto a Commercial H-Type Granular Activated Carbon: Experimental and Modeling Studies. Water Res. 2001, 35, 2385–2394. 54. Aksu, Z.; Gönen, F. Biosorption of Phenol by Immobilized Activated Sludge in a Continuous Packed Bed: Prediction of Breakthrough Curves. Process Biochem. 2004, 39, 599–613. 55. Bonetta, S.; Bonetta, S.; Ferretti, E.; Balocco, F.; Carraro, E. Evaluation of Legionella Pneumophila Contamination in Italian Hotel Water Systems by Quantitative Real‐Time Pcr and Culture Methods. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2010, 108, 1576–1583. 56. Kloss, S.; Zehetner, F.; Dellantonio, A.; Hamid, R.; Ottner, F.; Liedtke, V.; Schwanninger, M.; Gerzabek, M. H.; Soja, G. Characterization of Slow Pyrolysis Biochars: Effects of Feedstocks and Pyrolysis Temperature on Biochar Properties. J. Environ. Qual. 2012, 41, 990–1000. 57. Gregory, J. Particles in Water: Properties and Processes; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 2005. 58. Boonamnuayvitaya, V.; Chaiya, C.; Tanthapanichakoon, W.; Jarudilokkul, S. Removal of Heavy Metals by Adsorbent Prepared from Pyrolyzed Coffee Residues and Clay. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2004, 35, 11–22. 59. Dhakal, R. P.; Ghimire, K. N.; Inoue, K. Adsorptive Separation of Heavy Metals from an Aquatic Environment Using Orange Waste. Hydrometallurgy 2005, 79, 182–190. 60. Lagergren, S. Zur Theorie Der Sogenannten Absorption Gelöster Stoffe; PA Norstedt & söner: 1898. 61. Ho, Y.; McKay, G. The Kinetics of Sorption of Basic Dyes from Aqueous Solution by Sphagnum Moss Peat. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 1998, 76, 822–827. 62. Bohart, G.; Adams, E. Some Aspects of the Behavior of Charcoal with Respect to Chlorine. 1. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1920, 42, 523–544. 63. Guibal, E.; Lorenzelli, R.; Vincent, T.; Cloirec, P. L. Application of Silica Gel to Metal Ion Sorption: Static and Dynamic Removal of Uranyl Ions. Environ. Technol. 1995, 16, 101–114. 64. Texier, A.-C.; Andres, Y.; Faur-Brasquet, C.; Le Cloirec, P. Fixed-Bed Study for Lanthanide (La, Eu, Yb) Ions Removal from Aqueous Solutions by Immobilized Pseudomonas Aeruginosa: Experimental Data and Modelization. Chemosphere 2002, 47, 333–342. 65. Thomas, H. C. Heterogeneous Ion Exchange in a Flowing System. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1944, 66, 1664–1666. 66. Yoon, Y. H.; NELSON, J. H. Application of Gas Adsorption Kinetics I. A Theoretical Model for Respirator Cartridge Service Life. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 1984, 45, 509–516. 67. Krishnani, K. K.; Meng, X.; Christodoulatos, C.; Boddu, V. M. Biosorption Mechanism of Nine Different Heavy Metals onto Biomatrix from Rice Husk. J. Hazard. Mater. 2008, 153, 1222–1234. 317 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

Sustainable Water Cleaning System for Point-of-Use Household

Recommend Documents