Teaching Chemical Engineering in
BRAZIL DR. ROBERT B. BENNETT, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Why would anyone with a wife and three children want to give up for two years a satisfying position in a Florida university to set up a chemical engineering course and laboratory in Belo Horizonte, Brazil? That was what I asked myself as I read the mimeographed appeal from Dean Frank M. Tiller of the engineering college at the University of Houston. And that was also what my family asked when I casually mentioned the possibility to them at dinner one evening. But for a travel-minded family brought up on the National Geographic, such a question was asked mainly to find some good, convincing reasons for our spontaneous desire to pull up stakes and go. As I later found out, Dean Tiller some months before had worked out a plan with Dr. Mario Werneck, dean of the engineering school of the University of Minas Gérais (Escola de Engenharia da Universidade de Minas Gérais, or E E U M G ) , for revising its chemical engineering curriculum. Primarily, this would involve setting up a course in unit operations and also a unit operations laboratory. The EEUMG faculty approved the plan, and the school offered to pay all teaching expenses for a qualified U.S. chemical engineering professor who consented to take the job for two years. The school also agreed to pay for housing and round-trip transportation for two. I was also fortunate in obtaining a Fulbright grant covering 84
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additional expenses for moving and travel. As soon as I found out that I had been accepted for the position, my wife and I tackled our immediate problem—developing a basic, working knowledge of Portuguese, a language with which we were totally unfamiliar. For six months before leaving the U.S., both of us diligently studied 15 language records made in Portugal. As it turned out, however, the Portuguese we learned in this way was not nearly so helpful as we had expected. In many respects, particularly grammar and pronunciation, Portugal's Portuguese is quite different from the language spoken in Brazil. Journey to Belo
Horizonte
After months of anticipation, my family and I left for Brazil on June 28, 1960-our first trip abroad. We stopped first at Belém, a quiet city in northern Brazil on the mouth of the Amazon, and then at Brasilia, the nation's new capital in the central plains. Arriving in Belo Horizonte, we were greeted cordially at the airport by several EEUMG officials and by my assistant-to-be, who was an excellent interpreter. Belo Horizonte (meaning "beautiful horizon" ) is a rapidly growing modern city with a population of over 700,000. Picturesquely surrounded by misty green, blue, and brown mountains, it is located on the major
highway between Brasilia and Rio de Janeiro. An important city commercially, it is the center of a rich mining district. Among the leading institutions in Belo Horizonte is the University of Minas Gérais, one of the better known Brazilian schools. Financed primarily by the national government, the university has an enrollment of more than 3300 students. Over 30% of the students major in engineering, which means that the school has one of the largest percentages of engineering students of any university in Brazil. The five-year chemical engineering curriculum, administered by the chemistry department, was set up in 1956. Previously, the department offered a five-year curriculum called industrial chemistry. It consisted of courses taken from the electrical, civil, and mechanical engineering curriculums, in addition to some courses in chemistry. In 1956, when the new curriculum was set up, a few of the courses were modified to make them more directly applicable to chemical engineering. At the same time, new courses, such as chemical thermodynamics, were added. Industrial
Chemistry
Before I arrived, the chemical engineering curriculum included no lecture or laboratory courses in unit operations. The closest approximation was a lecture course in industrial
IftKUM feature
Higher education in Brazil obviously needs to be expanded to accommodate the growing number of students. At the School of Mining and Metallurgy in Ouro Preto, students stroll through a courtyard containing a bust of Henri Gorceix, the French scientist ivho founded the school in 1876
chemistry. A survey of how various leading chemicals are made commercially in industry, the course required only a small amount of quantitative problem-solving and essentially no laboratory work. My principal responsibility at EEUMG was to organize the lecture and laboratory courses in unit operations. In addition, I was asked to help revise the chemical thermodynamics course to make it more useful to engineers. I was also asked to recommend changes in the over-all chemical engineering curriculum. Finally, the day arrived for me to teach my first Brazilian classes. One group consisted of six students and the other of only one student (in all, I taught 33 chemical engineering undergraduates in my two years in Brazil). To plan the courses, I asked some of the students to fill out a questionnaire I had drawn up to find out what types of lecture information and
experimental work they had already covered. Shortly before, their former teachers had supplied me with the syllabuses of their earlier courses. All this information made it clear that the students had acquired a good grounding in chemical theory. Compared to university students in the U.S., however, they had spent much less time in individual laboratory work and in calculating the answers to practical scientific and engineering problems. In short, the educational emphasis was predominantly on theory. Setting Up the
Laboratory
To run our initial experiments in unit operations, we borrowed some equipment and an analytical laboratory. Meanwhile, my students and teaching associates began looking for more permanent facilities for the unit operations work. After two weeks in the analytical laboratory, I accepted
their recommendation of an unused, partially completed ore-processing laboratory in a government building on the outskirts of town. Although it was inconveniently located and contained only a small fraction of the. equipment we needed, at least it was a start. We overhauled the equipment and adapted it for unit operations experiments. The first of these dealt with grinding and size classification. Later, the students built and operated equipment for studying most of the basic principles of fluid flow. As the months went by, it became increasingly evident that we needed a better equipped laboratory and one that was nearer the school. Although a special bus had been bought for our use, transportation continued to be a problem. Finally, at the suggestion of the engineering dean, we rented a large basement room in a new hotel within half a block of the engineering school. This room, with its strong floor and high ceiling, was an obvious improvement over our previous setup. Our first big job was to get the necessary new equipment (we had already obtained price lists from suppliers in Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and other Brazilian cities). At the time, any purchasing of equipment from outside countries was almost impossible since the president of Brazil, Jânio Quadros, had just resigned, and foreign business confidence was rapidly slipping. MARCH
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With some assistance from me, the students calculated the size and amount of piping needed for water, steam, air, gas, vacuum, and drains. Later, some of the students installed part of the electrical wiring and some of the iron, brass, and plastic piping. They rebuilt the fluid-flow equipment and constructed part of a tubular heat-transfer unit. Among the equipment we eventually installed were an air compressor, vacuum pump, sieve shaker, evaporator, extractor, ball mill, heated press, ovens, furnace, centrifuge, and mixers. The biggest single piece of equipment was a 30-foot-high bubble-cap fractionating column, which was made in Rio de Janeiro and finally arrived after I left. The total cost of equipping the laboratory, including the $20,000 fractionating column, came to about $50,000. The university paid the full cost. Difficulties ivith
Equipment
With some of the equipment, we ran into problems. Some of the brass valves were poorly cast and had to be replaced because they leaked. The chrome-plated filter press arrived with screens not only on the plates, as requested, but also on the frames. This, however, was easily corrected. Because the water pressure fluctuated so much, we had to install pumps and a water tank. We also had trouble with the 60-cycle, 110- and 220-voltage, which was quite variable, particularly during wet weather. Eventually, for some of the instruments, we had to install a voltage regulator. Obtaining the new equipment took a great deal of time, and the students were obviously impatient to get started. As each new piece of equipment arrived, they set to work operating it with immense enthusiasm. As might be expected, the experiments that had the most widespread commercial significance were the ones that aroused the greatest student interest. In one experiment, they measured the purity and calculated the heats of solution and reaction of commercial sodium carbonate and calcium chloride. They calculated the maximum weight of materials that could be handled in the laboratory equipment. They carried out tests to confirm the calculated temperature rise and the yield of calcium carbonate. In addition, they measured the 86
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constants of sedimentation, filtration, and drying. Although the laboratory course was one of my major preoccupations, I was also responsible for the lecture course in unit operations. Each day, I wrote out my lectures in English, had them translated into Portuguese, and then practiced my pronunciation on my assistant before presenting the lecture to the class. In the discussion periods, the students who understood English acted as translators. Within six months, my knowledge of Portuguese had increased sufficiently so that I could give the lectures without reading my notes verbatim. For outside study material, the students bought copies of McCabe and Smith's "Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering/' which I had ordered from the U.S. The lecture notes, diagrams, and graphs for the course were based largely on this text. Some months later, my lecture notes were mimeographed, bound, and submitted to a number of prominent Brazilian professors and practicing chemical engineers who agreed to revise
individual sections. Eventually, this effort, I hope, will lead to the publication of a. standard Portuguese text in unit operations. For the students to be trained properly, I felt they should work sample problems at the blackboard, take short daily quizzes and monthly hour-long tests, and also do homework. When I suggested this plan, however, some of the students immediately rebelled. Considering this a matter for group action, the students held a private meeting to argue it out among themselves. If at this meeting they had decided against my proposal and if I had then insisted upon it, they could have gone on strike until I had yielded to their demands, arbitrated the matter, or resigned from the faculty after an official hearing. Fortunately, the students realized the value of my proposal and agreed to give it a try. This was not an easy decision for them to make—particularly regarding homework. Brazilian professors assign homework and night study only rarely because they know that many of the students, to support themselves, their parents, or
Engineering
in Some of Brazil's Major
University of: City:
Rio Grande do Sul Porto A leg re 1957 1962
Parana Curitiba 1956 1961
Total university enroll ment
4213
5300
3139
Engineering enrollment (including chemical engineering*)
655
945
704
Universities
Sao Paulo Sao Paulo 1957 1962
Brasil Bahia Rio de Janeiro Salvador 1957 1962 1956 1960
4700 8400 12,000 10,000 12,000 2100
2000 2500
840
—
1500
Engineering enroll ment/total univer sity enrollment 15.5% 17.8% 2 2 . 5 % 17.9%
—
12.5%
177 —
100
—
200 —
5 . 3 % 13.4% 2 1 . 1 % —
6.7%
—
14.3% —
2.0%
Chemical engineering* enrollment
21
Chemical engineering* enrollment /engineer ing enrollment 3.2%
50
94
600
Recife Recife 1956 Ί96Ι
MOO —
300
—
6.0% 11.7%. —
15.0%
—
6 —
—
M i n a s Gérais Belo Horizontc 1957 1962
3862
2124
3332
291
596
1100
7.5% 2 8 . 1 % 33.0% 135
1
46
46.4%
0.2%
4.2%
University budget per student, 1960-61
- $200
$500
—
—
—
$150
—
Number of students per faculty member, 1960-61
4.75
3.0
—
—
—
2.0
—
Percentage of Univer sity City completed, 1962
80%
10%
25%
20%
50%
30%
10%
Caliber of chemical en gineering equipment
Superior
Minimum**
Minimum**
Minimum**
Deficient**
Deficient**
Superior
* Includes industrial chemistry.
** Major improvements planned.
even a family of their own, must carry the burden of an outside job. Despite this, my students were highly cooperative. They not only performed the assigned work but in many cases asked for makeup problems when they missed a class. Daihj Quizzes and
Homework
Actually, as I later found out, the giving of frequent tests and homework is not unheard of in Brazilian engineering schools. At the University of Parana, for example, the chemical engineering school gives daily quizzes, daily homework, weekend problems, and monthly examinations. The students write periodic laboratory reports and take frequent laboratory tests. As an indication of how interested the students can become in the way their classes are taught, they happened to be on strike when I visited the university. One of their professors, they claimed, was not keeping up to date technically, and they demanded that he be removed. Tn many Brazilian universities, the students are required to attend only
50 to 70% of their classes. This, however, is not as serious a problem as it might seem. Many Brazilian professors follow the textbook so closely that their students can get all they need entirely from the book (which in most cases the professor has written himself). However, when a professor does not follow the book exactly, the student who has been absent repeatedly has to do some real hustling. Generally, groups of students work things out among themselves so that at all lectures at least one of them is present. They then share their lecture notes and also regularly conduct their own outside study sessions. Although this practice is not uncommon in the U.S., it almost seems to be a way of life in Brazilian universities. Typically, few, if any, students show up in class during the first week of the semester or during the last few weeks. Presumably, they are at home preparing for the start of classes or for their final examinations. Absenteeism at the end of the semester is encouraged by the fact that, by law, a professor can give only review ma-
terial in the last 10 days before the final examination. Also contributing to absenteeism is the widespread tendency of Brazilian students to go on strike if conditions don't meet their favor. In at least one case, such pressure has led to the removal of a university president. A few years ago, a student strike forced the state of Paraiba to construct a large new building for its engineering school. Somehow, I cannot help but admire the students for their tremendously vigorous interest in the way their universities are run. In many cases, student efforts have brought about much-needed changes. However, such pressure can also be abused. It can easily lead to the intimidation of professors who wish to make progressive, constructive changes. It might also result in the dismissal of highly capable professors who might be difficult or impossible to replace. From the outset, I was very much interested in learning more about general teaching methods in Brazilian universities. I discovered, for exMARCH
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Over 30% of the students at the University of Minas Gérais major in engineering. The engineering school has its headquarters in this modern, wellequipped building
Many universities in Brazil are constructing new, enlarged facilities. This spacious building at the University of Bahia in the seaport city of Salvador is devoted to science and engineering
ample, that many professors take great pride in presenting highly polished lectures uninterrupted by student questions (which are usually reserved for later discussion periods in the socalled "practical classes" ). I also found that professors, at least a week in advance, are required to post a complete list of the types of questions they plan to ask on their final examinations. In most courses, only two examinations are given each year. If the student fails to show up, he is generally allowed to take makeup examinations and may then pass the course with a grade of 40%. Lectures are normally given three times a week for about 32 weeks. The "practical classes" in engineering are held from two to four hours a week. They usually consist of the professor's choice of problems, demonstrations, student laboratory experiments, and inspection trips. Engineering students often obtain practical experience in estagios, or paid work periods, which the students arrange for themselves. This work is done between semesters, usually in industry, although some students get 88
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jobs working in university pilot plants, such as those at the University of Sâo Paulo and the University of Parana. Highest
Position
In Brazilian educational circles, a subject of deep concern is the problem surrounding the position and title of Catedrâtico. This is the highest title that a university teacher can attain. It is awarded when a man competes successfully for a Cadeira, or chair. Its significance lies in the fact that professors with this title usually have the only lifelong teaching positions in the university. Also, their job provides the highest teaching salary and prestige. In any given subject in each college of a university, only one professor can hold a Cadeira. All other professors teaching the same subject have no tenure and can be dismissed at any time. This arrangement, based on the old European system, has been in use in South America for many years. Although it has some advantages, it also has many disadvantages. For example, a Catedrâtico continues to hold his position regardless of whether he
remains fully competent. Moreover, if he finds that his class of, say, 100 students is too much of a burden for him, he can assign part or even all of his work to assistants, who may be far less qualified. Sometimes, a Catedrâtico may be required to fill vacant Cadeiras in several different colleges at the same time. Hence, his effectiveness in any one of them may be seriously limited. One of the biggest problems is that professors without Cadeiras are usually poorly paid and have very little prestige. As a result, universities sometimes find it extremely difficult to attract good men. Brazilian universities, like those in the U.S., have a hard time trying to compete with the much larger salaries offered by industry. In the past few years, quite a few Brazilian universities have succeeded in getting around the problem of the Catedrâtico by hiring outstanding men as members of their affiliated research institutes. Although officially attached to the research institute, these men actually spend much of their time teaching. This system works out well since the government allows
Scientific and technical libraries in Brazil are greatly handicapped by the high cost of importing books and journals. Engineering students here examine books in a Brazilian college library
The nations new capital, Brasilia, has gained world-wide acclaim for its strikingly imaginative architecture. This is one of its major buildings, the Presidential Palace. An outstanding university is planned for the city
the research institutes to pay relatively high salaries. The universities are also attempting to give their professors more distinguished titles. In many cases, a qualified professor who is unable to become a Catedratico because the position is already filled is known merely as a free professor. Now, however, some Brazilian universities, such as those in Minas Gerais, Parana, and Rio Grande do Sul, are conferring such titles as conditional professor, contract professor, or associate professor. At the same time, teaching salaries are being raised. Supplementary positions and subsidies are also being provided where necessary. Actually, now that these various devices are being used, the problem of the Catedratico is not as severe as some observers have pictured it. Centralized
Training
An important trend in Brazilian universities is the effort to centralize the teaching of individual subjects. Now, the courses in a university may be duplicated in each of its colleges,
often widely dispersed throughout a city. For example, in a typical Brazilian university, a medical student receives instruction in chemistry from a professor in the medical school. A physics major learns chemistry from a professor in the physics department, and so on. This is the typical pattern for courses throughout the university. As many educators believe, the net effect in many cases is inferior teaching and the inefficient use of teachers. The educational standards, they point out, are not as high as if, for example, chemistry were taught exclusively by members of a centralized chemistry department, who would be teaching chemistry full time. More and more Brazilian schools recognize this problem and are converting to centralized teaching. In fact, the proposed revisions in the Brazilian education laws would make such changes compulsory. These changes are being rapidly accelerated by the construction of the so-called University Cities. Today, a large university in Brazil in most cases has its buildings scattered throughout a city. But the move is under way to build new buildings all in a single central location. In fact, most of
Brazil's major universities are now in the process of building new campuses, which, of course, will make centralized teaching much more practical. In recent years, the faculties, deans, and presidents of Brazilian universities have made numerous recommendations for improving higher education. Out of these recommendations have come the programs to build the University Cities and to reduce the duplication of courses in separate colleges. Other achievements have been the raising of teaching standards, the increase in the amount of full-time teaching, the improved education of precollege students, and the setting up of technician schools to give less qualified students the vocational training so important to Brazilian industry. Financing these reforms is, of course, a major hurdle. Although Brazil still has a smaller public debt per capita than the U.S., it does not have sufficient domestic and international confidence to obtain enough of the required loans. The need for large funds to build Brasilia has speeded up the inflation that has been plaguing the nation for years. MARCH
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Chemical
Engineering
Courses in Some Leading Rio Grande do Sul P a r a n a
University of: Differential and integral calculus Analytical geometry Graphing and data processing Vectorial calculus Descriptive geometry Geometric perspective and design Physics Free-hand design Introduction to engineering General chemistry Qualitative analytical chemistry Statistics Physical chemistry Applied calculus Applied mechanics and strength of materials Mineralogy Metallurgy Engineering design Differential equations Quantitative analytical chemistry Organic chemistry, aliphatic Chemical engineering thermodynamics Geology Plant construction Fluid mechanics Electrical engineering Organic chemistry, cyclic Stoichiometry and applied analytical chemistry Unit operations and industrial physics Thermodynamics Inorganic processes, industrial Organic processes, industrial Design, construction, equipment Biochemistry and biochemical technology Industrial hygiene Industrial economics Industrial organization Microbiology and fermentation Instrumental analysis Organic chemical analysis Electrochemistry Botany and zoology Instrumentation Oils and waxes Colloidal chemistry Properties of materials Resources of Brazil Literature Public speaking Chemical engineering kinetics Seminar Heat flow
1 ID ID ID — ID — ID ID ID ID ID 1 + 2 1 + 2 1 — — 1 2D 1 1 2D — 5D 3 2D + 3 2 — 2 2D 2D 2 — 4 3
2 4D -— — — 2 2
— 3 3 — 3 1
2D 4D 3D+ 4 3D 4 3
—
3
4 + 5 — 5 5 4
3 + 4D — 5 5 4D
5 — 5 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
— 5 5 — 5 — 4 — — — — — — — — — — — —
Brazilian
Universities,
1961—62
Recife
Minas Gerais
Proposed by Author for M i n a s Gerais
ID ID 4E 2D ID 2D 1 + 2 — — 1 1 — 2 2D
ID ID 2 2 ID ID 1 + 2 ID — 1 2 — 4D 2D
ID + 2D ID 1 2D 2HD 2 HD 1 + 3H — ID ID ID 3 2 2D
211 + 4HE 2 — 3D 5E 4D — IH 2 — 2 3 2 3
3E 4E — 2 — 2 2
2 + 31) 2 3D 4 — 3 2
211 211D HE III 2D 2 2IID
— 3D — — 3
3 — 4 — 3 4
3 — — — 4E 3
3 3D 3D — 3 3
211 + 311 1HD 4 3IID 3HD + 411DE 2ND
3
—
3
3E
—
311
4 3 4 5 4 + 5
3 — 5 5
4 4 4 5 —
4 + 5H 2HE 5HD + 5HDE 5HD + 5HDE 511
Sao Paulo
Brasil 1
Bahia
1 + 2D 1 1 + 2 2D ID ID 1 + 2 — — 1 2 5D 2 —
ID ID — ID ID ID 1 — — 1 1 — 2 —
1 ID ID 2H IH — 1 + 2 — — 1 + 2 2 IH 2 + 3 IH
2 3 — — — 3 3 — — 4HE + 511E 3 4 4
t
4HE + 51 IK — — I 5D I — — ! — — — 4 — 51 IE — — — — — — 511 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
4 3 + 4E — — 4H 5 4H 5 511 + 51 IE — — 511 5H 5H 5E — — 5E — 5 5E — 4E — — — — — —
1E 5 5 — 4E 4E 4E — — — — — — — — — — — —
5D 5 5 5 5D — — 4D 4 — — — — — — — — — —
—.
HE
3N + ur 4N — — — 31 ID + 4HD — 3H — — I l l + IN HID + HE 3D 511 311 511 HIE or 51 IE
1—first year, 2—second year, 3—third year, 4—fourth year, 5—fifth year. H—taught only half a year, E—elective (if no year is indicated, the elective can be taken in any year after the basic course), D— division of a course title. 90
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1963
Clearly, Brazil cannot hope to pay for its needed educational reforms without higher taxation, greater public support, and greater political stability. Expansion of the Brazilian educational system is obviously essential. Because of the continuing shortage of teachers and facilities, only 2800 university openings existed in 1960 for 12,000 engineering applicants. In 1961, only 734 students of all types were graduated with advanced degrees from Brazilian universities. Visits to Other
Schools
To get a better idea of how chemical engineering is taught in Brazil's major universities and also to find out more about the universities themselves, I visited eight of them toward the end of my stay. EEUMG agreed to pay my full travel expenses, partly because it felt that the information gathered would be useful to me in suggesting changes in its chemical engineering curriculum. Since Brazil is larger than the continental U.S. and since airplane schedules are limited, I was unable to visit all of the major schools. However, I did manage to cover about 5000 miles. Since many of the leading universities are in some phase of moving to new campuses, it was not always easy to obtain information on normal operations. Quite a few universities, I found, have put off their plans to install modern equipment until after they move. For example, the chemical engineering department at the University of Sao Paulo now has relatively few pieces of modern equipment but is planning to make major purchases when it transfers to its new location. On the other hand, the University of Rio Grande do Sul, which is already centralized, currently has one of the best equipped chemical engineering laboratories of any Brazilian university. In fact, within a few years, the laboratory will have to move because of rapid expansion. In comparing the chemical engineering curriculums of various Brazilian universities, I was struck by the fact that the course titles and year of presentation differed relatively little from one university to another. This reflected the strict governmental regulations (now gradually being revised) which years ago froze the university curriculums into a pattern that is now outdated. This situation, however, is not true in all Brazilian universities.
Typically, the students show a tremendously vigorous interest in the way their schools are run. These students at the National Institute of Amazonian Research carry out a variety of experiments in a mineralogy laboratory
The University of Sao Paulo, financed primarily by state rather than federal funds, has succeeded in modernizing its curriculums and has already introduced options and half-year courses. Admittedly, course titles do not precisely indicate what is actually taught. As in the U.S., the information presented under any one course title can differ widely, depending on the professor. A physical chemistry course, for example, may include information on kinetics and nuclear physics. A data processing course may include details on statistics and computers. Obviously, the professors do have some latitude in designing their courses. Universities Being
Revived
A number of universities, I found, are being gradually revived after years of remaining dormant. In 1961, the University of Para in Belem reopened after being shut down for some years following the decline of Brazil's natural rubber industry. In Manaus, some 1000 miles up the Amazon, the National Institute of Research is serv-
ing as headquarters for the revival of the University of Amazonas. The institute has already obtained pilot plant equipment for a new chemical engineering laboratory. For many years, scientists in this area have turned out an unusually large number of important research publications. These have resulted, in part, from the wealth of unique natural phenomena in the region and also from the great influx of research funds during the rubber boom. The research publications of the universities I visited were mainly concerned with the natural sciences. Some publications described the commercial uses of natural products. A large percentage of the papers dealt with mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Many of them related to the use of radioactive materials, such as those available from the three nuclear reactors now operating in Brazil. Somewhat surprisingly, I found almost no papers published by Brazilian universities in the area of basic chemical engineering. Unlike the rather extensive library at EEUMG, library facilities in the MARCH
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universities 1 visited were in most cases only barely adequate. Brazilian libraries are severely handicapped by the high cost of importing texts and journals. And, unfortunately, the books that are available are scattered among the university's colleges. This problem should be reduced, however, in the new University Cities. The University of Recife library, with 200,000 titles, is one of the few in Latin America to be centralized. Frequently, the most useful library in any given field is in the university research institute specializing in that field. As far as I could tell, Brazil has no periodicals that are strong in either chemical engineering or chemistry. Some research is reported in foreign journals, especially those in the U.S. and Germany. Since the average Brazilian scientist is much more familiar with foreign languages than is his counterpart in the U.S., foreign journals are very widely read in Brazil. Some reports by Brazilian scientists are published in Brazilian trade journals or company magazines. In many cases, the universities themselves publish research results in individual bulletins, available in major libraries throughout Brazil. Despite a good deal of searching, I found very few Portuguese textbooks in chemical engineering, although mimeographed or printed lecture notes are available. Prof. Leo da Rocha Lima and Prof. Hilmar Fugmann of the University of Parana have written
six monographs covering about half the subjects included in a typical unit operations course. In the future, these sections may be combined as chapters in a book that may become Brazil's first standard text in chemical engineering. Nations
New Capital
Since it is among the glittering showplaces of modern Brazil, the new city of Brasilia deserves a few separate comments. Brasilia clearly shows what the Brazilian people can accomplish in only three years through faith, ingenuity, and skill. Anyone who has followed the progress of this remarkable city knows that it is now firmly established—despite the dire predictions of the hand-wringing skeptics and those who deliberately wanted the project to fail. My advice to pessimists is that they read the history of Washington, D.C., whose beginnings were at least as turbulent. To plan an outstanding university for Brasilia, a large number of prominent Brazilian educators made a detailed study of higher education in the world's leading nations. Their plan was approved by the Brazilian government and, therefore, will serve as a guide for the new laws governing other federally-controlled universities. Eventually, the University of Brasilia is expected to have a total of 10,000 full-time students and faculty. Many of the faculty will have tenure, although they will not have many of
Schools provide training in advanced methods of exploiting Brazil's ore deposits. These extensive facilities, operated by the University of Sao Paulo, are used to train students in modern methods of processing lead and silver otes 92
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DR. ROBERT B. B E N N E T T re-
turned to the University of Florida last year after teaching chemical engineering for two years at the University of Minas Gerais in Brazil—a memorable experience discussed in this report. Dr. Bennett is research professor of chemical engineering at the University of Florida and has held this position (apart from his two-year leave of absence) since 1952. Born in Charlotte, N.C., in 1909, he graduated from the University of Florida with a B.S. in chemical engineering in 1931 and from Purdue with a Ph.D. in chemical engineering in 1936. Prior to entering teaching, he was a research chemist with Reilly Tar 6- Chemical (193640), director of organic research and development with American Brakeblok Division of American Brake Shoe (1940-46), and head of the research analytical laboratory of Firestone (1946-52). His research interests have centered on resins, plastics, and elastomers and on developing new uses for the natural products of Florida.
the other special rights and privileges of the old-time Catedraticos. The university plans to offer a wide range of elective courses, and all courses will be open to all students, regardless of their major. The university intends to place its prime emphasis on training for usefulness to Brazil, rather than on mere erudition for its own sake. Two years of basic courses will be given to all students. This basic curriculum will be followed by one year for a degree in general education or three years for specialized training or five years for a doctorate. Unlike most Brazilian universities, the University of Brasilia will have a single dean to coordinate all graduate and postgraduate studies. Although only partially complete, the university was officially opened early in 1962. Introductory courses in government, business administration, architecture, and literature and other humanities are now being taught in the four buildings already completed. Faculty members from Indiana University are planning to help
COUNT
. . . and how it affects filter fabric performance As shown above, count is simply the number of ends (warp yarns, or threads) and picks (filling yarns) per inch in a woven fabric. Count becomes more complex when considered as one of the variable factors in engineering a spe cific filter fabric. In fact, upon the basic technique of varying the number of threads interlaced one strand with another, the textile industry has built a broad technology capable of supplying the require ments of many industries and special applications. Filter fabric may be woven so closely that it is able to retain particles of minute size. Or the count may be kept low to obtain maximum rate of flow. A soap manufacturer, for example, filtering for eign matter from oil and glycerin, uses a strong, closely woven cotton duck, which lasts for months in this arduous service. A beet sugar processor, on
the other hand, would choose a lower count duck constructed to provide a high rate of flow, while clarifying thick juices at 90°.to 95°C. By varying the count, the same basic fabric can be modified to meet specific requirements of porosity, strength, wear and service. Although count is an important factor in filter cloths, fabric performance is finally determined by the right combination of fiber, yarn, weave,finishand count. That's why it takes a specialist to select the most effective and economical filter fabrics for spe cific applications. You'll find the textile experts who distribute Wellington Sears fabrics have extensive experience, plus an outstanding selection of thor oughly proved filter fabrics. For their names—and a copy of our informative, illustrated booklet, "Filter Fabric Facts"-write Dept. L-3.
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set up a centralized chemistry department. The University of Brasilia will also have centralized departments in mathematics, physics, biology, earth sciences, the arts, and other fields. The technology curriculum will be divided into civil engineering, mining and metallurgical engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, hydraulics, and industrial chemistry (chemical engineering). After studying the chemical engineering curriculums of various universities, I drew up my report recommending changes in the chemical engineering program at EEUMG. I proposed, for example, that a course in chemical kinetics and one in instrumentation be added. I also urged that the engineering program place greater stress on practical problemsolving and laboratory work. The head of the chemistry department, Dr. Lourenço Menicucci Sobrinho, who was also in charge of chemical engineering, expressed considerable interest in my report. He felt, however, that official faculty discussion of it would be premature. He suggested, instead, that any changes in the curriculum be delayed until after the national education laws had been revised. Meanwhile, I discussed my proposals informally with other members of the faculty. I was pleased to find that my recommendations not only agreed reasonably well with their own ideas but also were generally in line with the proposed changes in the education laws. Challenge to Chemical
Engineers
Chemical engineering, I am convinced, has a tremendously promising future in Brazil. However, the Brazilian chemical engineer today is faced with a dilemma—the problem of high prices and limited markets. Not many Brazilian chemicals are being sold in large volume today because they cost too much. And without adequate sales, the Brazilian chemical industry cannot build the large-scale plants that could turn out chemicals more efficiently and cheaply. In the early 1900's, Henry Ford broke this sort of deadlock in the U.S. automobile industry. Brazil needs engineers who can break similar deadlocks in the chemical industry. Men with good pilot-plant training should be able to start chemical plants that can be enlarged rapidly and made in-
creasingly efficient by reinvesting the initial high profits. And in turn, improved operation should lead to lower costs and expanding markets. Plenty of opportunities exist. Almost all types of raw materials are available in Brazil, and electrical power is cheap. Brazil has coal in the south, petroleum in the east, wood in the north, and valuable metals and radioactive ores in the center. Awaiting exploitation by the chemical engineer are large deposits of salt, phosphates, limestone, iron, and other basic materials. Brazil already has the backbone of a modern system of airlines and trucking. Water transportation, of course, has been a mainstay for centuries. Lacking, however, is an extensive railroad system, which would be especially useful to a growing chemical industry. Looking back on my two years in Brazil, I feel they were immensely rewarding to me personally. I trust they were also of value to the university, which should now have a stronger foundation in modern chemical engineering. Cooperative efforts of this type should obviously be expanded. Funds, whether from government agencies, private organizations, or other sources, should be made available on an increasing scale to permit the exchange of more professors and students between the United States and other countries. Greatly needed today are men and women willing to share their scientific and technical knowledge with other nations. These should be men and women who are not only well qualified professionally but also are eager to know the people, learn their customs, share their language, and win their warm and abiding friendship.
REPRINTS . . . . . . of this feature on chemical engineering education in Brazil are available at the following prices: One to nine copies—75 cents each 10 to 4 9 c o p i e s — 1 5 % discount 50 to 99 c o p i e s — 2 0 % discount Prices for larger quantities on request Address orders to Reprint Department, ACS Applied Publications, 1155 16th St., N.W., Washington 6, D.C.
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