TEACHING CHEMISTRY IN SOVIET SECONDARY SCHOOLS ANTON JURECIC International Paper Company,' Pennsylvania
Philadelphia 22,
ETHEL BERKOWITZ Woodland Junior High School, East Meadow, L. I., New York
RECENT reports on the status of Soviet science instruction often leave conflicting impressions. It may he of interest to readers of THIS JOURNAL to have an account of the instruction in chemical technology typical of a Soviet secondary school. The following information is based on a book by Yu. I. Kolosov, Director of the Secondary School No. 195 in Leningrad.* The book was published by the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, and can, therefore, be considered official. Its main function appears to be as a manual for principals and science teachers in secondary schools.
CLASSROOM WORK
In the first section the author discusses the presentation of the basic chemical technology to he taught
' 226 W. Columbia Avenue.
Ko~osov,Yu. I., "Iz opyta politekhnicheskogoobucheniyav prepodmanii khimii v srednei shkole." The Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of RSFSR, Moscow, 1957.
VOLUME 35, NO. 12, DECEMBER, 1958
in the 8th year (to 15 years old). The instruction starts with the description of hydrochloric acid production. Designs of industrial installations are shown, the properties of construction material are described, the equilibria and possible side reactions are discussed. Next the production of sulfuric acid is presented. Since sulfur-containing ores are the main sources of sulfur in the Soviet Union, several periods are spent in describing the prep'ration of raw materials. This gives an occasion to show the operation of a laboratory flotation tank. Various ore-crushimg, milling and separating machines such as roll crushers, cyclones, and Cottrell precipitators are described. As an example of a catalytic process, the formation of sulfur trioxide from sulfur dioxide is illustrated. The industrial processes for the production of ammonia and nitric acid are taught in the 9th year. The physico-chemical basis for the reactions is outlined first. Considerable time is spent in discussing production
facilities. This is followed by the description of the production of superphosphate and other fertilizers. Processes based on electrochemistry are taught in the 10th year. The method of approach is the same as for other topics. It starts with a statistical data sheet emphasizing the quantity and importance of electrochemical methods. Ionization in water and in hot melts is discussed next. Modern electrolytic cells used in plants are described (e.g., a version of De Nora's chlorine cell). A total period of 30 teaching hours was assigned to the topic "Metals" in 1953/54. Chemical reactions taking place in blast furnaces and during smelting operations are dealt with in considerable detail. The gasification of coal and the coking process is discussed a t length. Of the organic industrial processes the synthesis of methanol, ethanol, and acetaldehyde is taught first. Nex* on the schedule is synthetic rubber and other natural and man-made polymeric substances. The production of viscose, hydrolysis of wood, and fermentation processes for the manufacture of ethanol, methanol, and acetone are discussed in sequence. Students are given an idea of the economics involved ill chemical processes ("wasteful industrial competition of the capitalist system" is mentioned), emphasizing proper design of machinery for the recovery of byproducts and heat. The synthesis of ammonia is studied as an example of a process in which numerous factors must be considered to achieve optimum efficiency. Demonstrations are used profusely as teaching aids. Simple apparatus is emphasized and models of plant installations are prepared either by students or in school shops. Most larger secondary schools appear t o have their own glass and machine shops. All students are required to gain some skill in using tools and machines such as lathes. Laboratoly assignments are intended to familiarize students with equipment, introduce them to assembling, manipulating, and taking apart instruments, and to acquaint them with the most common chemicals. In the 10th year each student is assigned 20 laboratory experiments such as preparation of cement, softening of water, preparation of sodium carbonate, corrosion of metals, catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide, electrolysis of sodium chloride, or production of plastics. The last set of assignments is in qualitative chemistry. The discussion of each topic is concluded with a four to five hour visit to an appropriate plant. These trips are well planned and students are required to submit written reports on what they have seen and learned. These reports are often accompanied by samples of raw materials or intermediates in test tubes fastened to cards.
EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Activity outside of the classroom concentrates on work in various clubs, such as Chemistry of Life, Inorganic, Physical, Organic, Biological Chemistry, Assembly of Chemical Instruments, Research Methods Club, or Committee on Organization of [Chemical] Olympiads. (The idea behind high school Science Fairs in this country is similar.) On such occasions students get in personal contact with prominent men of science; a t least a few members of the Academy of Sciences are on hand to chat with them. A group of students takes care of editing a periodical. Another group handles the library. These clubs help to keep students occupied full-time and foster both individual and group activity. Kolosov gives an illustration of a simple gas burner constructed by a student, and reprints a drawing of a blast furnace done by another student. It is interesting to note that only the initials of outstanding students are given. Particular stress is put on conferences such as the one on function and achievements of the Soviet metallurgy in the fifth five-year plan, or one commemorating the work of the eminent organic chemist, N. D. Zelinskii. Distinguished men of industry and education are invited to such meetings. On one occasion the students of the school mentioned received letters from A. N. Nesmeyanov, an organic chemist who is the President of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. Perhaps most conspicuous in this program is what might be called a logistic approach. The impression that too much time is spent on certain topics is inevitable. Why this is so may be understood from the author's statement a t the end of the book that many students graduating from secondary schools are going directly into industry. The instruction is intertwined with praise of the accomplishments of Russian scientists and the Soviet system. On the other hand, it gives a substantial degree of freedom to personal engagement if not during class and laboratory periods, a t least in outside-classroom activities, probably more than might sometimes be judged. That the whole science curriculum is much more straight-jacketed than it is in the United States reflects the general uniformity and the presence of an authoritative and efficient central organization. Nevertheless, those responsible for the program appear to be aware of shortcomings. The author of the book, Kolosov, asks readers for criticism. The teachers gather frequently to discuss problems encountered in classrooms. There are, of course, no PTA or similar organizations which might distract attention to essentials of curriculum.
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
