VOL. 6, No. 12
APPLICATIONOP PSYCAOMCY TO TEACHINO
2181
THE APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY TO THE TEACHING OF HIGH-SCHOOL CHEMISTRY The average college teacher is often forcibly impressed with the idea that there is something wrong with the teaching of chemistry in the high school, either with the objectiv& or with the method of preparation or presentation. Who would not entertain such a doubt when the following typical answers are received from incoming high-school graduates? "Pressure is that which holds the mercury up in a thermometer" and "Valence is the marriage of the molecules." Perhaps a glimpse into the reasons for the study of science will give us a foundation for establishing some definite motives for the inclusion of chemistry in the high-school curriculum. Spencer, in "What Knowledge Is of Most Worth?" attempts t o show, and with some degree of success, that the study of science furnishes information which is incomparably more useful for our guidance than any other kind. However, modem theories rather disregard his argument and marshal the following reasons for the study of science, particularly physics and chemistry: 1. Science is sufficiently adaptable t o educational purposes t o make it a valuable study. 2. It introduces variety into the media of instruction and thus assists in meeting the demand made by multiplicity of student interest? 3. Even a t its average, i t can furnish certain constituents of a general discipline of the mind more easily or in a more conspicuous degree t h n any other subjects a t their average. This is accomplished by (a) training in observation; ( 6 ) organization of observation by induction and comparison; (c) development of the memory by the repetition of tests and experiments in laboratory procedure; (d) control of the imagination bv checkina a. ~ a i n s ideas t and forming new hv~otheses t o meet new con-ex~eriments . ~. ditions; (e) character training by the establishment of standards founded upon eternal truths; (f)stimulation of mental rectitude, clear thought, and clear expression. ~
There is of course an opposing camp which objects t o the inclusion of science in the high-school course, and its champions present the following arguments: 1. The methods of teaching are so rigorous and exacting that they unfit men for dealing with human questions. 2. Science lowers the ideals of the student by forcing him into mntact with what is commercially useful, thus giving him a material outlook on life. 3. The study of science has of necessity a narrowing influence.
The value of these arguments may easily be estimated by reflecting upon the lives of well-known scientists, many of whom, in a lifetime devoted to science, have not lost the humanitarian touch. The vast progress of chemistry in recent years is itself an answer to these objectors. As a
separate science it is still in its infancy and if the immediate past is any measure of the future, we may well expect it to work marvels in generations yet to come. An insight into the introduction of chemistry into the public schools will help to account for the present trend of chemical education. All the early laboratory courses were modeled after the course offered by Liebig of Giessen. The general course was followed by qualitative and quantitative analysis and to this day that is the ordinary method of procedure. The earliest laboratory manual in this country was written by Professor Will in 1846 under the tit1e'"A Laboratory Manual of Modem Chemical Teaching." The first important step taken by a college in including chemistry in the list of subjects for admission was made in 1888 by Haward when it took the stand that this science had become of sufficientimportance to be included in the requirements for matriculation. In connection with this announcement came an outline of a course in high-school chemistry in the same year by Professor Cooke of Harvard. Great Britain was far ahead of us in the chemical field and Germany offers some science for every year of the secondary school. In order to see the strides of chemistry in this country, however, let us look a t statistics. In the year 1897-1898, 8.55y0 of all the pupils in high school were studying chemistry a t some time during their high-school career and in 1926 we find that 82y0 had i t on their list of subjects to be taken during the fouryear high-school period. Perhaps one of the greatest hankcaps to progress of the science in highschools is the manner in which it is treate'd. At present varying classroom methods are used, viz., the nature study method, arranged according to a sequence of natural phenomena; the theoretical method, arranged in reference to theory only; the historico-systematic, arranged in reference to chemical materials with theory introduced a t intervals; and lastly, a combination of the second and third, this being the ideal method, although it has the disadvantage of attempting to cover too much in too short a period. Laboratory work is most important and should precede theory, but by many teachers it is regarded as incidental, inefficient, and in some cases it is omitted altogether. The psychology of laboratory trainmg is that it is of value in holding interest and attention and securing clear expression. To achieve these purposes, laboratory directions should be coherent, should designate for each experiment the object of it, andshould include a definite description of the apparatus and materials and the methods of handling hoth. The question has often arisen as to the value of chemistry in high-school and four important reasons present themselves as factors which should keep the course in the high-school curriculum with an excellent supenisor in charge. These are as follows:
1. As industry becomes more nearly chemically perfect (for what industry does not involve chemistry in some phase or other?) there will be a greater demand for all t o know something of science. We need chemically trained men t o manage factories and even for positions in which chemical processes occur only occasionally. 2. Chemistry plays an important part in daily life, as in drugs, foods, milk, in the production of which vast numbers of chemists are employed. 3. Chemistry gives an understanding of the injury done by numerous patent medicines, anti-fats and drugs of harmful nature, a public hazard which can only be offset by better co6rdination among researchers. better coaperation with the public, and by educating the individual so that he may protect himself and realize the importance of the science to the nation. 4. Chemistry offers a romantic field of study to the young persan who is attracted t o pure science.
Those who question the advisability of chemistry in the high-school course bring forth the idea that it has no educational value: They overlook the fact that training in this science will assist in the fundamental duty and greatest achievement of any teacher-that of building character. The teacher of chemistry can influence character by establishing a simple set of ideals and directing the activities of the students toward them. This may be accomplished: 1. By encouraging the desire for truth and accuracy, for doing a thing in a particular way because i t is rkht. . 2. By developing the spirit of open-mindedness. 3. By stressing the homely virtue of honesty in the use of notes and apparatus. 4. By maintaining self-government in the laboratory. 5. By aiding the student in gaining an appreciation~fthe applications of science to everyday life. 6. By encouraging the spirit of willingness in allowing students t o help other members of the class.
Again the question comes to the fore-what should be the objectives of a course in high-school chemistry? What is to be accomplished and what will the student gain by them? The following statement of objectives has been drawn up in the hope that it may serve as a general list, subject of course to change according to the individual needs of the schools. These objectives are: 1. To give a broad and genuine appreciation of what the development of chemistry means to modern social, industrial, and national life. 2. To satisfy the normal interest in the materials and forces of nature; t o give information which is interesting purely for its own sake. 3. To promote opportunity far the student to become acquainted with the applications of chemistry t o industry for the purpose of educational and vocational guidance and possibly t o furnish a beginning of vocational training. 4. To develop broad concepts of the ultimate composition and indestructibility of matter, nature of chemical composition, interrelation of chemical elements, etc., t o the end that science and reality may function in place of superstition and uncertainty in explaining natural phenomena.
5. To contribute such specific ideals, habits, and concepts as those of accuracy, achievement, persistency, open-mindedness, honesty, cause and e5ect which are essential t o the study of science. 6. To develop system, order, and neatness, to the end that they will function in the ordinary affairs of life. 7. To afford in some measure an opportunity to show the importance of scientific research and stimulate the spirit of investigation and invention on the part of the student. 8. T o give children full opportunity t o indulge in the playful manipulation of chemical materials in order that they may explore the world of reality as widely and as deeply as possible. -~ 9. To provide opportunity for acquaintance with such applications of chemistry in public utilities in problems affecting the health and well-beinp of the individual and the community, that the student may more adequately fulfil the duties of citizenship. This would involve such topi- as utilization of waste products, elimination of smoke, pure foods, etc. 10. To make pupils read more intelligently, and with greater interest, articles on chemistry in magazines and in scientific hooks of popular character. 11. To give such training as will result in increasing respect for the work of recognized experts.
With these objectives in mind, we must next consider the sources of possible information and how they agree as to the most fundamental topics to be taught in a logical high-school course. Statistics show that in 1924 five widely used textbooks were cataloged as t o content with the result that 25.2% of the material was found to be of a practical nature and the rest theoretical. The opinions of a number of teachers were sought and i t was found that 25.69% of them pla'ced stress on the useful applications. A questionnaire as t o the rating of 50 clFemistry topics was sent t o a number of teachers, and the authors of the five textbooks were asked to rate the same subjects. The ratings were given in the order A, B, C, D, and E, A representing the highest grade. Group 1 (consisting of 10yo of the topics) included those considered by the teachers as fundamental and most important; Group 2 (15y0),the very important; Group 3 (500/0),important; Group 4 (15%), interesting; and Group 5 (lo%), unimportant. The results of the questionnaire follow: Group l Chemistry of Iron and Steel Chemistry of Fuels Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid Chemistry of Petroleum Building Materials
Ratings by leathers A-
+
B B+
BB-
Ratings by textbook authors A B B B B
Group 2 Refrigeration Chemistry of Foods Fire Extinguishers Purification of Water
A A-
AB
+
C+
C CC
Manufacture of Soap Metallurgy of Aluminum Electrolysis of Brine Bleaching
Group 3 Electrolysis of Water Manufacture of Liquid Air Mfg. and Uses of Lead Compounds Extraction of Sulfur Metallurgy of Copper Mfg. Amorphous Carbon Chemistry of Textiles Extraction of NaCl Mfg. of Carharundurn Softening of Water Clay, Cement, and Concrete Paper Making Fertilizers Mfg. of Glass Soda Process Mfg. of Ammonia Alcohol and Acetic Fermentation Etching Glass Chemistry of Explosives Metallurgy of Silver Photography Starch Industry Smoke Prevention Mfg. of Phosphorus Mfg. of Iodine
Group 4 Manufacture of HCI Sugar Refining Metallurgy of Zinc Making of Blue Prints Carbide and Cyanamid Mfg. of Sodium and Potassium Hydrogenation of Veg. Oils Mfg. of Carbon Bisulfide
Group 5 Mfg. of Ink Electroplating Mfg. of Bromine Mfg. of Artificial Diamonds Mfg. of Baking Powder
I am of the opinion that what is worth teaching is worth teaching well, for the knowledge of a few practical chemical processes properly taught is of more value than a superficial acquaintance with many. It is well t o
decide in a general way the most valuable processes and to divide the time accordingly, for all high schools must choose chemical processes of undoubted national importance and scope and focus attention upon them. I n connection with this type of subject selection it has been found advisable to make use of various types of project teaching. The projects as usually carried out are not true projects as they do not originate with the pupil. They should be planned and worked through the laboratory. They should follow the line of the laboratory work and should be of the type of the following, which, would illustrate the subject of sulfuric acid and sulfur. 1. What happens when H d and SO* mix? Explain from this action the change in volcanws. 2. Make H a 0 1 by the chamber process. 3. Test for SO4,SOa ions, and H.S. 4. Show how the two oxides illustrate the law of multiple proportions. 5. Determine how bleaching preparations sold for bleaching straw hats act. 6 . Name 2 acids and 2 bases, showing how each is prepared from the anhydride. 7. Start with a weighed piece of copper and find how much CuS04 can be made. Calculate the theoretical yield and your percentage yield. 8. Sulfite process for paper making. 9. Prepare wine t o water trick. 10. Show allotropic forms of three elements. 11. Operation of a refrigeration plant-name gases used. 12. Show that ammonia will bum. 13. Show that ammonium hydroxide is a weak base and HzS a weak acid. 14. Prepare good crystals of washing soda:
The most astonishing results from this project work will show that there are very few students who are capable of looking up correct references and will reveal a very poor understanding of reference libraries. The work that is handed in is usually copied direct from reference books. The high-school course must be so outlined as t o fit the person who goes to college as well as the one who does not. I n every phase the teacher must strive t o produce some degree of judgment in the student's mind. Even if formal education ends with the high school, the labor is not in vain. In connection with this idea a questionnaire was sent to various college presidents, the results of which are given herewith: 1. Is the high-school graduate helped toward his work in college chemistry by high-school chemistry? 12-Yes. 1-No. 2. What does college demand that the average high school cannot give? Nothing-The larger schools have demonstration, etc., but the small ones can leach the fundemenlals. 3. Does college recognize what is done in high-school chemistry? 11-Yes. I-No. 4. Do you have Chemistry 1 classes divided into sections so that those who have had high-school chemistry are segregated from those who have not?
10-Yes. Various methods are used to conduct s e g w p k d classes. 3-No. 5. What fundamentals brought out in high-school chemistry help the student taking it in college? Gas laws, weight relations, properties of more familiar elements and compounds, chemical and physical properties, valence, chemical arithmetic, equations, moleculer theory, reuersible reactions, ionization, electrolysis, hohts of accuracy, careful observation. 6. Should high-school chemistry be merely informational? 13-No. 7. Should high-school chemistry involve much mathematics? Not too much mathematics end a few elementary quantitetiue experiments. 8. Are high-school teachers merely to peate interest in the subject? 12-No. 1-Yes.
We may conclude, on the whole, that the colleges are recognizing the work done in high-school chemistry courses. In applying educational psychology to chemistry there are a number of points which may be considered. One is in the original tendency of a chemical education to satisfy natural curiosity. High-school chemistry is most successful in this as college chemistry tends to break down that interest by presenting the subject matter before the manipulation. Another application is in manipulation, for the foundation of experimental chemistry is the technic of the laboratory. A third correlation would be with the mastery of the subject, for in it the pupil performs each task and builds by the law of association. The fourth might be listed as cultivating the sense of possession by holding the student personally responsible for his desk and individual apparatus. Then the idea of collectiou might he stimulatsd by having the student take home the products of experimentation. In many instances fear is overcome. This is often the case with girls when, for example, a burner is taken apart, theprinciple of the burner is explained and no strikmg back is allowed. The tendency to rivalry may be usefully employed in allowing the individual student to proceed as rapidly as possible provided that the work4s done correctly. Still another application of psychology is the development of individuality by allowing a pupil to select his own companions on various projects. Imitation is said to play a part when the teacher performs the first manipulation and the students copy, a method of which this writer heartily disapproves, although a number of 'teachers advocate it., In general, the association of ideas will lead from the trial and error method to the selective thinking and reasoning type. No discussion would be complete without a consideration of the newtype examination as compared with the old-type essay form. In the oldtype examinations, the student was taught to organize material and, in geueral, the conditions as found in the old-type questions more closely reflect the problems of life. New-type questions are arranged to measure some
definite or characteristic trait or degree of achievement. If the questions are not carefully selected, the poor student makes a high grade. Probably the best results will be obtained by giving partly old, and partly new-type questions. Chemistry is the only high-school science to which the newtype questions have been successfully applied and we find that a t present there are three types of tests used in high-school chemistry courses. The first is the Bell-Texas, which takes up the ideas, information, and ability which a college department considered essential in entering students. The Cleveland Cooperative Test is on information only but the Rich tests take memory work, chemical thinking, '/s number work, and 1/81aboratory questions. The surprising thing about the Rich tests is that they show that the student who continues chemistry in college shows little improvement in the total attainment after the first year. Today many teachers' markings are unreliable for (a) the terms used in describing achievement are vague and indeterminate, (b) variability exists in the passing grade, (c) values assigned are not consistently maintained by any teacher, (d) teachers have no sufficient basis for judgment of quality of work the pupils do, ( e ) consultation of teachers is not usually engaged in, (fl young teachers lack the opportunity for observing achievements. The standard tests are a help in teach'mg and may be considered as a service to an administration in curriculum-building. As a rule our inherited methods for determining achievement in chemistry are crude and unsatisfactory; the newer tests help solve the difficulty. It is best to let the study of chemistry bear out the statement that education helps man to live in an atmosp%ere of truth-to make every day a microscope for studying the infinite profundities lying in a drop of water or a grain of sand and to make every night a telescope for bringing the world of great truths close by.
