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PERKIN MEDAL A W A R D At the meeting of the American Section of the Society of Chemical Industry on January 16, 1925, the Perkin Medal was presented to Hugh Kelsea Moore, technical director of the research laboratory of the Brown Company, Berlin, N. H. The meeting was opened with introductory remarks by Harlan S. Miner, chairman of the section. David Wesson then told of “Hugh Kelsea Moore-the Man,” whom he considered one of his greatest discoveries. A brief sketch of Dr. Moore’s ancestry and early training furnished an interesting background for the understanding of those qualities that make him a worthy recipient of this medal, chief among which are openness to conviction after obtaining the evidence, integrity of character and fondness for truth and right, and t h a t infinite capacity for taking pains which makes him a true genius. John C. Olsen gave an account of “Hugh K. Moore and His Work,” which has been along many branches of applied chemistry, including the electrochemical decomposition of salt into chlorine and caustic soda, the production of wood pulp, the hydrogenation of oils, and the production of a variety of organic and inorganic products. The production of chlorine and caustic soda by the Allen-Moore cell, the design of multiple-effect evaporators up to ten effects, and the design of apparatus for many continuous processes are a few of his engineering achievements. The medal was then presented by Charles F. Chandler and accepted by the medalist. The Perkin Medal is awarded “annually to the American chemist who has most distinguished himself by his services to Applied Chemistry.’’ It was founded in 1906 a t the time of the Perkin semicentennial celebration of the coal-tar discoveries,
the first medal being awarded to Sir William H. Perkin himself. The previous Perkin medalists are given below: DATBOF AWARD AWARDED TO 1907 Sir W. H. Perkin 1908 J. B. F. Herreshoff 1909 Arno Behr 1910 E. G . Acheson Charles M. Hall 1911 1912 Herman Frasch
1913 1914 1915
James Gayley John W. Hyatt Edward Weston
1916
L. H. Baekeland
1917 1918
Ernst Twitchell Auguste J. Rossi
1919 1920
Frederick G . Cottrell Charles F. Chandler
1921
Willis R . Whitnev
1922
William M. Burton
1923
Milton C. Whitaker
1924
Frederick M. Becket
PRINCIPAL FIELDSOF INVENTIONS Discoverer of first aniline color Metallurgy; contact sulfuric acid Corn products industry Carborundum; artificial graphite Metallic aluminium Desulfuring oil and subterranean sulfur industry Dry air blast Colloids and flexible roller bearings Electrical measurements; electrodeposition of metals; flaming arc Velox photoprint paper; bakelite and synthetic resins; caustic soda industry Saponification of fats Development of manufacture and use of ferrotitanium Electrical precipitation Noteworthy achievements in almost every line of chemical endeavor Development of research and application of science to industry Achievements in oil industry; efficient conversion of high-boiling fractions into low-boiling fractions Great constructive work in 6eld of applied chemistry Processes for extraction of rare metals from ores; manufacture of calcium carbide; processes for reduction of rare metals and alloys
The Complexity of the Industrial Chemist B y Hugh Kelsea Moore H E complexities of our modern civilization are such that there exist many divergent opinions as to the relation between social development on one side and economic law on the other. Many people are so obsessed with paternalism that they lose sight of the economic laws by which society must be governed. As society develops, existing economic laws will be modified, but certain fundamentals will exist as long as certain phases of human nature continue. Without consuming space in listing their different human attributes, I wish in this paper to touch on a few points of divergence between the industrial chemist and the pure scientist. The Bible gives us an allegory in which we have Adam and Eve placed in the Garden of Eden with all their desires satisfied with the exception of curiosity. Scientists tell us that the intelligence of primeval man was of the lowest order, and that his wants were supplied when he had enough to eat and drink. Theologians tell us that his sense of duty was so constricted that he was only asked t o comply with one law, and Genesis telIs us that even this law, simple as it appears to have been, was a law incapable of fulfilment. It thus appears that an overwhelming curiosity was an attribute of primeval man. Coincident with the mental development of man we find increased desires. Although religions have sprung up which have a more logical basis than those founded on the chaotic conditions as represented by the All Pervading Spirit of Neith, than those
T
whose various deities were assigned attributes found in the human race, yet when we make a study of the development of man we find that this development has not obliterated his primeval instincts. We find many instincts modified, and that many new conceptions have been added. Curiosity, the first trait mentioned, has survived with all the others. The scientist is an exponent of this trait when he indulges his propensity for digging into the secrets of Nature just as much as is Mrs. Grundy who pries into t h e secrets of her neighbor. Treatises and lectures are written by scientists to prove their altruistic attitude toward the human race and to convince audiences of their beneficent purpose toward society. The discoverer of a law of nature is a p t to claim a large share of the benefit which may accrue to society from some industrial application of his research. Some scientists are a p t to parade their labors as an unselfish contribution to the uplift of humanity, leaving with us the notion that their contributions were made without receiving any reward or without the expectation of receiving any compensation whatsoever. I think that I may safely state that in the majority of cases no thought of the beneiits to be conferred on humanity entered the minds of the original investigators during the initial stages of their work. A scientist is seeking for the truth even though he may have only a hazy conception of what truth is. His chief and perhaps only pleasure is derived from his work and his discoveries relating
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to the laws of nature, and he thereby attains the greatest desire in that is in the consideration of the consuming public. Business tohuman life, happiness. His discovery, as long as it is unused, is day must recognize that an industrial operation is successful in the only a potential gift to the happiness of humanity as a whole. It long run only when it not only considers the interests of the manuis only when the scientist’s discoveries are translated into action facturer, but recognizes that labor and the general public have interests, either direct or remote, in industry. This last attithat they benefit humanity a t large. However, as society develops we gradually acquire new inter- tude has been brought about by a growing feeling on the part of the public that it has been exploited by industry. This feelests and ideals. The idea of benefiting posterity becomes a part ing has become so general that we now have a more or less pubof the scientist’s creed, and this may influence him in his line of research. I, myself, have added to my former religious teachings lic control of some industries wherein the puhlic welfare is of the belief that one’s duty is not fulfilled unless he benefits his paramount importance. It is not within the scope of this article fellow man, and I look forward to the time to go into this many-sided question, which when I can carry on investigations in certain would not be mentioned but for the fact that lines of research. My reward, however, will this public interest is constantly producing come in the happiness I achieve while a t my grave problems for the industrial chemist work whether or not the results are utiliand chemical manufacturer. To illustrate, tarian. a concern may establish chemical works far The industrial chemist also gets the great distant Irom civilization because of the boon of happiness from his work. His odors emitted by the process, and yet be ambition is qchievement, and his controlcompelled either to close down the mill or ling motive is to translate potential benefits eliminate its odors or find other means of disinto actual benefits. He, too, may be actuated by many complex motives. When posing of its wastes, because of the coming of a population which owes its very habitathe pure scientist makes a discovery and tion and existence to the concern. Other goes no further, he has conferred a potencommunities may settle farther down the tial, or may I say a theoretical, benefit, for stream and then protest against the polluwhich he may receive, in addition to the tion of the stream by the concern which had reward of satisfaction of curiosity, notoriety a previous existence. and even fame which, however much they It will thus be seen that the industrial are prized by the recipient, may yet be as unsubstantial in actuality as was the mirage chemist must not only be able to conduct a of substantiality in his discovery. process successfully, but he must look forward to conducting his process in such a When the industrial chemist starts where the pure scientist left off, and his work manner as not to give offense to a coming Hugh K. Moore confers a substantial benefit to society, he but a t uresent nonexistent Dublic. may receive a substantial reward though he may not attain either Many a young chemist believes that unremittent industry will notoriety or fame. The pure scientist does not have to consider in the end place him as a manager of a chemical industry, and the utilitarian value of his research, but the industrial chemist to this end he works unflinchingly and usually meets disappointmust produce his output a t a price which will enable its distri- ment. We see engineers in plenty filling the managers’ chairs; bution. It is only when distribution occurs that an actual we find few chemists attaining to this position. What is the benefit is conferred on humanity. reason? May I say that the engineer is human whereas the chemThere is a large gap between a laboratory experiment and an ist is not? I ask this as a question; for although an epigram may industrial operation. The former may require a relatively small express a truth, it may just as well distort a fact. outlay of capital, labor, and time; the latter may require relaThe chemist works with inanimate matter; the engineer, with tively large amounts of all. But in mentioning these possibili- both inanimate and animate matter. It thus happens that the ties we must not forget that the industrial chemist usually benefits chemist does not understand his fellow men, whereas the engineer by the knowledge adduced by the pure scientist. At the same in carrying out his projects has to come in contact with his feltime it must not be overlooked that in many instances the indus- low man, and in so doing receives jolt after jolt until he acquires trial chemist makes discoveries in pure science, and oftentimes the needed knowledge. The average chemist so centers his atcorrects the data transmitted t o him from the pure scientist. tention on the material things of nature that he is apt to forget The one is the complement of the other. They are iqterdepend- that man is the finest creation of God, and that man’s great inent. The industrial chemist not only discovers pure scientific dividuality and true greatness would not be attained if man were facts, but he utilizes all facts in commercial processes and thereby endowed with everything he desired in a finished state. The convinces the industrialist of the value of scientific research. chemist must understand that, while he deals with the raw maHe is thus primarily responsible for the funds contributed for terials of nature, he himself is raw material, and his fellow man is scientific education and scientific research, without which much also raw material. The chemist may fashion his inanimate matscientific investigation would never be undertaken. ter to meet his desires, but he must not forget that animate matThe principles of industry have grown, expanded, and altered ter is being fashioned into something either superior or inferior with our intellectual development even to a greater extent than every day. our conceptions of religion. The essential of business is the action of animate matter on The alchemist guarded his secrets jealously, and his motives animate matter. The chemist who only observes the action of were usually selfish. At heart he was an industrial chemist. He inanimate matter on animate matter has not the qualifications was very apt to be secretive. This secretiveness is more often than necessary either t o protect the business interest of the company not an attribute of the iDdustria1 chemist today. Still, many of with whom he may happen to he, the interests of the public, or even us have come to believe that man can accomplish little by himself, his own interests. It is the chemist with the broader viewpoint and that an interchange of information may benefit everybody. who will in the end dominate the others. I have never known a Industry was once purely selfish. Labor was treated with little chemist who has not sharpened his wits against his fellow man consideration. Later industry fou’nd that a consideration of labor to become a successful manager of a business. I have known from a humanitarian standpoint paid dividends in better work and many men who were not chemists t o become managers of chemical more stable conditions. A third change is now taking place, and concerns.
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The chemist must a t the start of his career make up his mind as to the goal a t which he may aim with a probability of success. If he wishes to be a great business man, he will probably have to devote his entire time to business and let his science go by the board. If he wishes to be a pure scientist, he must devote his entire attention to science. Between these two extremes there are many gradations. Unless the man who accepts one of the gradations is a most unusual man, he cannot expect to match TUMBLER S E A L
ANODE W I R E K AS C A R W N S
ASBESTOS DIAPHRAGM WIRE C L O T H
Diagram 1-Submerged
Diaphragm Cell
pennies with either the pure scientist or the pure business man. He may, however, fill a niche in which he both obtains and dispenses happiness. It is said that a chemical engineer is neither a good chemist nor a good engineer. This may be true or may not be true according to one’s definition of a good chemist or a good engineer. Like most epigrams it contains a germ of truth in that it states that he may not know as much chemistry as a pure chemist or he may not know as much engineering as the pure engineer, but it is faulty in that it does not state that he may be a good chemical engineer and in this capacity cover the ground in his field far better than either the engineer or the chemist. In a like manner (paraphrasing the above) the business chemist may be neither a good business man nor a good chemist, but he may fill a niche which neither the business man nor the chemist can fill satisfactorily. In this capacity he may not only realize some of his dreams in pure science, but he may be able to reduce them to an actuality which will confer blessing on a public, and he may himself receive a part of these blessings. The industrial chemist like the engineer may be very human, but there are many industrial chemists who are so self-centered that humanity is not in their category. I wish to urge many of my fellow chemists to come out of the hard and unyielding shells with which they have surrounded themselves, and I especially wish to warn the young chemist of the dangers attendant to the building of a mausoleum and inclosing himself therein. I have known many teachers to become insufferable egoists because of their exclusive daily contact with minds in less developed stages than their own. They become highly incensed and intolerant when they find matured minds do not take them a t their own valuation. When age puts an end to their teaching activities, they become crabbed pessimists of the worst kind, because they have not developed the humanitarian side of their natures by coming in contact with their fellow man. I have known music teachers who have refrained from marriage because the duties of motherhood would interfere with their art, only to find that they had sacrificed a birthright for a mess of pottage. They today would give everything they possess to have their own babies’ arms around their necks. Faust, the scientist, was willing to sacrifice his immortal soul to become human with human feelings in place of the dried parchment which he himself had become. I t is necessary to suffer in order to enjoy; themore capable one is of suffering, the more he is capable of enjoyment. Therefore, let not the chemist confine himself entirely to his stuffy or evil-smelling laboratory, but rather let him come out into the world and take cognizance of what is going on around him; let his human sympathies be aroused, let him both give and receive some of the milk of human kindness, and he will be a happier man because he gives happiness to others.
Vol. 17, No. 2
We hear many complaints from chemists who have givena lifetime to work, only to be laid on the shelf in order to make room for the younger and more energetic generation. If they have not taken pains to develop a broader contact with mankind and thus maintain an interest in life, they are to be pitied; but they have only themselves to blame, for their cramped house is of their own fashioning; and while they may complain either justly or unjustly of ingratitude, they have no just cause of complaint for the ensuing unhappiness which is a direct result of their neglect to live a broader life. A toad shows more sense than some of these hermit chemists. He is born in the water and takes to the land, but he never becomes estranged from his original element t o such an extent that he cannot return to it in time of need. The hermit chemist is born to the people, but he forsakes his kind for an artificial atmosphere of evil smells. He so loses his sense of the proportion of the fitness of things as to be unable to return to his original environment. Compare the hermit chemist with the chemist of affairs; the first is inthlerable, the second is loved and admired. The one becomes a miserable grouch living a sordid, uninteresting, and probably a selfish life; the other becomes a sympathetic human being radiating sunshine and benevolence wherever he goes. But let us return to the industrial chemist and see wherein he may be differentiated from the pure scientist. We will grant for sake of argument that he may not know as much about the broad field of chemistry as the pure scientist and yet have to admit that he may have a far more intimate knowledge of his chosen field, even though it may be greatly circumscribed. The pure chemist may discover an original process, conducting his experiments in glass, gold, or platinum. If, however, it is impossible to carry out this process on an industrial scale on account of the cost of materials or limits of fragility, the discovery of the pure chemist is of little value to himself or the community a t large. The industrial chemist may have to spend a lifetime and much capital in putting this discovery into actual operation and even then may not succeed. It has been known for a long time that cellulose can be almost completely hydrolyzed in strong hydrochloric acid; yet the discovery has very little importance because we have not yet the materials to conduct this process industrially. VMBLER SEAL
L FRAMEWORK
RINE LtveL A V S T I C LCVEL
ASBESTOS PAPCR
GAS CARBONJ
Diagram %-Submerged
Diaphram Cell
The industrial chemist must have as a part of his equipment a knowledge which may have nothing to do with science, but yet so necessary that he would he greatly handicapped by the lack of the same. The pure scientist may experiment all he wishes with no fears of being sued for patent infringement. The industrial chemist must be thoroughly cognizant of the present state of an art. Not only must he know this, but he must know the limitations in the way of working his own patents commercially. The patent, for instance, gives no right to the owner to manufacture and sell a product. These are natural rights and so recognized in common law. The value of a patent lies in the fact that it excludes others from doing the things especially claimed in the patent. The industrial chemist must beware not to encroach on
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this preempted ground, for in doing so he may involve himself and his employer in an expensive lawsuit. The industrial chemist should understand enough of the principles of patent law to avoid encroaching on the preserves reserved for others, and to protect his own preserves. He should be a logician, for otherwise he may mistake a product claim for a process claim. I think I hear you saying, “How absurd!” I t is not absurd. I can name many instances where such product claims are only process claims, but will give only one as an illustration. In the Burchenal patent (U. S. 1,135,351)the first claim reads as follows: “A homogeneous lard-like food product consisting of an incompletely hydrogenized vegetable oil.” This reads like a product claim. However, if the product is old and thus part of public property, the claim then degenerates into a process claim in which the process is described by the words “incompletely hydrogenized. ” Perhaps I can illustrate my point by paraphrasing the above clause. “A homogeneous drink consisting of incompletely oxygenized hydrogen.” “A homogeneous washing fluid consisting of an incompletely sodiumized water.” The first is water and the second a solution of caustic soda in water. Both products are old; such a claim is valid only in so far as there are valid claims of originality in the processes of producing the same. It will be seen that the above are all process claims. The industrial chemist must also realize that, in the present state of our patent laws, a patent has only a potential value until it has been adjudicated. He must realize that the patent will come up before a jurist not a scientist. In applying for his patent, he must pay fully as much attention to the mental reaction of the judge when it comes to adjudication as to the mental reaction of the patent examiner. Accordingly he must take greater pains in elucidating what he claims as his invention than is ordinarily necessary merely to obtain a patent. Some patent examiners object t o the inclusion of much of this matter, because they are looking a t the application from the sole standpoint of invention, rather than considering both invention and possible adjudication. The value of an industrial chemist depends upon his ability to manufacture an article a t a price a t which it can be sold. Thus the questions of costs cannot be neglected, for they must always be taken into consideration. An industrial operation may be successful in one part of the world owing to the conditions of environment and yet may be totally unsuited for another environment. Labor must be taken into consideration, as well as nature of materials and source of supply and means of distribution, market, etc. Above all the industrial chemist must always take into consideration that, although the scientific facts upon which a process is founded may always be correct, yet the process may become obsolete owing to cheaper manufacturing methods. Not only must he be able to find the industrial weak points of a process, but he must be able to conceive and produce new processes and oftentimes new machinery, in order that his ideas may be brought to industrial fruition. His processes must be so conceived as not to violate the laws of the state or country relating to hours and nature of labor. The products escaping therefrom must not form a public nuisance or create a public antipathy. He must consider carefully the fire hazards, danger of explosion, etc., and weigh considerately the costs of insurance and workmen’s compensation, and the liability of injunctions. He must not only take the above into serious consideration, but he must follow the development of public opinion, in order to anticipate the effect of future hostile legislation. It will thus be seen that the industrial chemist does not lie in a bed of roses, for all these perplexities and many more enter into his life. Now a word of advice to the young chemist who is entering industry. First, he should make himself thoroughly familiar with all departments in which his work may have either direct or indirect effect. He must remember that even a small change in a
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product as it leaves one department may require drastic changes in other departments to which the changed products go. Before he is fitted to make any change, he must have such a familiarity of the complete process as to forecast all the possible results of such a change. To do this he must in his own time familiarize himself with engineering layout and physical conditions of the mill. He will probably start as an analytical chemist having certain prescribed duties, and he will remain an analytical chemist until he obtains a broader view of the whole by familiarizing himself with the same. He must have inquisitiveness and acquisitiveness; the first to discover chances for improvement, and the second to acquire the knowledge and technic to put his ideas into effect.
\\MERCURY CONN~CTIOHS
Diagram 3-Submerged
Diaphragm Cell
For his own protection he must a t the same time realize that an article which has a limited use also has a limited sale and he must apply this maxim to himself personally. The greater his stock of practical knowledge the greater is his stock in trade. But it is not alone sufficient to have a stock in trade; it is necessary also t o sell this stock in trade a t prices which will be remunerative. The business man advertises his stock in trade and so adds to his list of customers. The industrial chemist should do likewise, or he may find he has only a limited market for his wares. The chemist has allowed himself to accept the dictum of others that it is unethical for him to advertise his wares; he must get this notion out of his head and carefully consider which of his wares he may sell without breach of faith to those who employ him. Opportunities are not lacking for advertising his wares, for the technical journals are always open to him who has something worth while to say. A chemist of wide vision always has much matter stored up, some of which he can release which will neither injure his employer nor himself. If he follows this plan he incites others to do likewise, with the result that he attains more and more knowledge. The writing of such articles, unless done carefully, logically, and truthfully, may bring on his head an avalanche of criticism, but the very carefulness with which he has to prepare articles pays to him dividends in the more orderly habits of thinking and modes of expression which he thereby attains. In addition he obtains a larger potential clientele through his effort in publicity. With this greater publicity the price a t which his wares may be sold will follow more nearly the laws of supply and demand. Let him have reliance in himself and not depend solely on paternalism. He must not forget that self-preservation is an older trait than the theory or practice of paternalism and much more strongly intrenched in human nature. In times of industrial depression, self-preservation will always take precedence. Finally let him remember that age must give way to youth both in physical activity and in ability to adapt t o widespread industrial changes, for with increasing age the mind becomes less and less plastic. Therefore, let the young chemist save his money while he is young in full realization of what is to happen when he is old. Let him realize that a sum of money carefully invested a t twenty may be worth four, five, or even six times that amount when he is fifty. The wise chemist will not only ponder deeply on these matters, but consider with himself on how far his circumstances will allow application thereof. Having decided he should lose no time in translating consideration into action. Having given my message for the benefit of the chemist’s needs of life and for the good of his immortal soul, I suppose I
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b
should fulfil the proprieties, or should I say conventions, and say something about my work. This has extended over a period of many years, and certain phases have been treated in the scientific joiimals. It has covered a varied field and has included so many subjects that no attempt will be made even to list the inW I N E INLET
*ANODE WIRE
C H L O R l N f OUTLET
RUBBER STOPPER
L A S S BOTTLE CUTOFF AT B O T T O M
LEAD CAST AROUND-CARBONS GAS CARBONS
Diagram 4-Unsubmerged
Diaphragm Cell
vestigations. I will therefore merely give a general idea of the conditions in two of the industries t o which I have devoted my attention. Reminiscences of the Old Diaphragm Cell
To go into the developments of the electrolytic cell a t this time is out of the question: first, because I have covered the subject pretty thoroughly in carefully prepared articles; and second the time a t my disposal is nowhere near sufficient for the purpose. It may, however, cast an interesting side light upon the subject, if I give a brief outline of the state of the art a t the time I entered the industry. At that time the electrolytic industry was in its infancy. Cells were made of various materials and were of the submerged diaphragm type. Most cells were of the horizontal diaphragm type, though the vertical diaphragm even then was coming into existence. The anode was composed of gasretort carbon or of platinum. One of the basic patents in relation thereto covered the idea of having a greater hydrostatic head in the anode compartment than in the cathode compartment. If platinum was used, i t was in the form of very thin wires sealed in glass tubes. But most cells used gas-retort carbons, and electrical connection thereto was made by casting one end of the same in lead. Platinum was expensive and the losses through theft were great. The small amount used required high voltages with a consequent loss of power. When gas carbon was used, lead chloride formed between the lead and the carbon with a consequent increasing voltage. As the use of platinum a t that time was confined to only one cell, I shall devote these few remarks to the cells using gas-retort carbon. We had not then solved the problem of confining the chlorine in its place, and i t was almost impossible to live in the cell room on account of the escaping chlorine. My first job on electrolytic cells was that of doser. But before going into this I must give you an idea of the main features of the cell so that you will understand the job of dosing. The cell was like a crock with a diaphragm in the bottom, set a t an inclined position in a tank containing electrolyte of sufficient depth to cover the diaphragm. If the vertical diaphragm was used, the electrolyte was carried a t a sufficient height to submerge the diaphragm. In the top of the cell there were two openings: one to let off the chlorine, the other being a water seal for the purpose of admitting brine or brine and salt. In starting, the cells and the tank were filled with brine, and the electric current was turned on. Caustic was formed in the cathode compartment, and chlorine in the anode compartment, which was inside the cell. As the caustic in the cathode compartment increased in concentration, its rapidity of difiusion into the anode compartment was also accelerated. The
union of the caustic and chlorine formed hypochlorite of soda, This, when electrolyzed, gave off nascent oxygen on the gascarbon anodes with the formation of carbon dioxide, which passed off with the chlorine. I shall refer to this later. My first job was to test the cells, in order to find how many inches of caustic there were in the bottom thereof. This was done by removing the tumbler which covered the water seal, inserting a glass tube, taking liquor a t different levels from the bottom and testing with phenolphthalein. If I found two inches of caustic, I had to add through a long-necked funnel, which I inserted into the water seal so as to touch the bottom of the cell, two pitchers of muriatic acid. If I found three inches of caustic, I was to dose with three pitchers of muriatic acid. The rule was one pitcher for every inch of caustic found. You can imagine the result. We immediately got a geyser of chlorine, and I would run for my life holding my breath. In this connection I may say that here I probably used the first gas mask for chlorine. This consisted of a large-sized sponge of cotton waste saturated with linseed oil. The gas would have to travel through about three inches of this before it got me. However, the quantities of chlorine were so great that the masks were short-lived, and a t best they did not prevent all the chlorine from coming through. Many times I have coughed up blood and have been laid out with the gas. Having dosed the cell I would return, put on the tumbler, and dose the next cell. There were, if I remember aright, 1350 of these cells. Let us drop this subject and follow the chlorine gas with its contained carbonic acid gas. This gas either went to make liquid hypochlorite or to make bleaching powder. The latter was made in standard lead chambers. The carbonic acid gas contained in this chlorine would displace the chlorine in the bleach driving i t down. When the chamber was finished and exhausted, the bleach men, inclosed in air-tight suits and air-tight helmets connected with an air-hose placed over their heads, would enter the chamber with pitchforks and skim off the top crust, which would vary from one-half inch to an inch and a half in thickness. After this was removed, the bleaching powder was barreled in the usual manner, The cells with inclined diaphragms were liable a t times to let hydrogen leak into the anode compartment with the result that a flash of light, or electric spark, or a -CHLORINE
OUTLET
SBeSTO5 D I A P H R A Q U ‘IRON PAN
Diagram 5-Unsubmerged
Diaphragm Cell
flame of some sort would cause an explosion which might be transmitted from cell to cell. The bleach chamber was liable to be transformed into a helicopter. Now let us follow the caustic. I have mentioned that the caustic diffused into the anode compartment forming sodium hypochlorite. This hypochlorite would flow through the diaphragm and get into the caustic department. Not only would this happen but the chlorine dissolved in the brine would also pass through the diaphragm and through leaks, and get into the caustic department forming hypochlorite therein. This mixture of sodium hypochlorite, salt, and caustic went t o the evaporator room, where it was evaporated in ordinary single-effect sugar vacuum pans and
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the salt was precipitated and separated from the caustic in centrifugal machines. The oxidizing action of the hypochlorite on the steam coils was so very severe, and the abrasive action of the salt was so tremendous, that these pans were shut down much of the time for repairs. The trouble, however, did not end here, for the heat converted the sodium hypochlorite to sodium chlorate and this was not removed with the salt. The final solution of 50 per cent caustic soda containing sodium chlorate went to the kettles for final concentration. The presence of sodium chlorate necessitated very careful firing in order that the chlorate might break down gradually. However, this is easier said than done. Many were the times when I saw the kettle get out of control and the whole mass seethe over onto the floor; and many were the burns as a resdt. Even if the firing operation was successful,the caustic was unsalable because of the accumulation of sodium chloride formed by the decomposition of the sodium chlorate. The hydrogen escaping from the cell carried caustic soda into the air. This was so irritating to breathe that the caustic soda solution was usually covered with a film of black oil. This will give you only a mere outline of the state of the electrolytic industry at the time I started my experiments. Fro& dosing cells I went to making bleach liquor, working on the night shift from 6:OO P.M. to 8:OO A.M. When I left the Electro-Chemical Company I had two ideas in mind: one to make metallic sodium, and the other to build an electrolytic cell on a new principle. Sodium a t that time was used for making such aluminium as was then made. I will not go into this now, for though I developed a process to make it, the method became valueless on account of the inventions of Mr. Hall. I associated myself with Edward A. Allen, who found a man, George Ridlon, to furnish the capital for conducting the experiments. Whereas I worked on the sodium process only a few months, I worked on the new cell nearly three years, receiving my board and clothes but no wages. As a doser of cells, I had had experience with the effects of caustic diffusing into the chlorine. As an observer of what took place in the bleach chambers, I was even more impressed by the amount of carbonic acid gas caused by this diffusion of caustic. As an operator of the liquid-bleach process I was impressed with the large amount of carbonate of lime in the sludge. I had also made during my spare time experiments with various electrodes, but I will not go into that here. My whole train of thought centered on the point of preventing the caustic from getting into the chlorine and of preventing the chlorine from getting into the caustic and thereby reducing the large files of unsalable caustic. Messrs. Ridlon, Denison, Allen, and myself formed the Moore Process Company. As we needed more funds, we later took in Honorable Josiah Quincy and formed the Moore Electrolytic Company. The culmination of my cogitations on this subject may be expressed in a few words. The prevention of caustic from entering the anode compartment was to be accomplished by having no accumulation of caustic on the cathode side of the diaphragm. The evil effects of chlorine being carried into the caustic by the brine were to be eliminated by having an anode surface opposite every part of the diaphragm on one side, and a cathode surface so closely matted that it should cover every portion of the other side of the diaphragm. The theory was that any chlorine coming through the diaphragm would form sodium hypochlorite, which would be immediately reduced by nascent hydrogen to sodium chloride. It may interest you to know how the first experiment embodying these ideas was carried out. The bottom of a glass carboy was cut off,a wooden mold was made, and a hole was bored therethrough. An insulated wire was cleaned on the end and inserted from the back of the mold. The mold was then inverted, gas carbons were inserted, and the mold was poured full of lead. The lead was painted with asphalt and inserted into the bottle.
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The wire passed through the stopper, which had been perforated with three holes: one for the wire, one to let off the gas, and one to serve as an inlet for brine. Asbestos paper was placed over the bottom and tied around the side. Wire gauze covered this and was tied around the side. The whole was placed on a mat of steel wool, which rested on a grid placed in an ordinary iron sink. The sink was filled with kerosene oil to a height to submerge the diaphragm. A rubber stopper was placed in the vent of the sink. A glass tube bent as a siphon came up so as to keep the level of the contents of the sink two and a half inches from the top of the sink. The sink was connected with the cathode wire from a direct-current dynamo; and the anode No. 0000 wire, to the other wire. The bottle was half filled with the brine, and the current turned on. You can imagine my elation to find that the current passed through, and to observe the space above the brine become greenish yellow with chlorine. As the experiment continued, the level of the oil rose in the sink, and the caustic, which sank to the bottom of the oil, trickled slowly out of the siphon. Everything went well for a few days, when an accident happened which put a stop to this particular experiment. The kerosene of those days was not the highly standardized product which i t is today. Somehow the hydrogen coming through the oil caught fire and the oil ignited. I made up my mind then and there that the process was too dangerous for commercial use and never used oil thereafter. So this experiment added another to the already long line of abandoned experiments. I had, however, proved that a cell could be made to operate without the cathode being submerged in the electrolyte. We made another cell in the same way, but used no oil. This was the basis of my first application for a patent on the unsubmerged diaphragm cell. ANODE W I R E
C H L O R I N E OUTLET MERCURY A C H E S O N GRAPHITE
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I
Diagram 6-Unsubmerged
Diaphragm Cell
After this we nailed together a wooden frame and covered the sides with asbestos, making the anode connections in the same manner as before. The cathode was made of wire netting. This cell was more elaborate in that it had means of adding solid salt. There were other devices which I will not describe here. The top was made tight by burlling thereon sheet lead, which fitted into a depression so as to make a water seal to prevent the escape of gas except through its outlet. We never got this cell
INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
208
full of brine, because the brine filtered through faster than we cordd put it in. Mest chlorine came through the part of the diaphragm above the brine level, and our caustic contained much ferric hydroxide. I will not go into the difficulty we had in getting a proper asbestos
Vol. 17, No. 2
are two other types not shown, one in which gas carbons were cast into lead and projected up from the bottom of the cells. The lead was protected from tBe chlorine by covering it with a material not acted on by chlorioe, which in turn was covered by cement. A second type was made of gas carbons, in which a copper plug was inserted into aplatinum thimble, and this forced into a hole in the carbon. The platinumi.ovcred copper plug was connected with a copper wire which was protected by a glass tube. These carbons were sawed out of gas carbons by means oi a diamond-toothed saw, and this construction enabled us tu use short pieces of carbon. Duriilg these experiments we had obtained small pieces of Achesoit's ncw product, artificial graphite, and conducted eaperim a t s on .niniature cells with thesc pieces. But as we could not get large pieces, we experimented in cutting the otily product which could be obtaincd in large pieces into forms which would be adaptaldc. We had the teeth of a circular saw set with black diamonds and were finally able to slice up gaS-retort CaTI>On.
Part of Installation of Allen-Moore Cells
paper, or into the many designs and improvements in cell construction, nor will I give the efficiency tests and analytical data. We finally discovered how to cut screw threads in slate and made our framework entirely of slate. In our experimenting we werc much hampered becsuic we were unable t a withdraw our brine when wc wished to shut down, but solved this difficulty by getting hard rubber faucets from the American Hard Ruhber Company. As i t was absohitely necessary to keep the level of the brine above the top of the diaphragm, we added an outside float chamber. Diagrams 1, 2, and 3 are typical of the many types of submerged diaphragm cells. These diagrams are self-explanatory and, while they may not be correct in detail (as they arc drawn from memory). they show the fundamental essentialsvf such cclls. Diagrams 4. 5, and 6 represent the early unsuhmeiged diaphragm
Diagram 7-Rlack
Wcvc had hardly accomplished this successfully, before wc were able to obtain artificial graphite in rlectric cells. I must omit much of the interesting history of the development of the cell and oi our experiments with the cell in making bromine a t Saginaw, Michigan. I feel that I should mentim one thing of importancei. e., the elimination of caustic vapors. In the original cells the cathode Was exposed, and the evolution of hydrogen atomized this caustic. Tcsts also showed that a considerable amount of carbonate of soda was formed. As long as we were only operatins one cell, the caustic vapors were not troublesome, or in fact very noticeable. When, however, we fame to operate a battery of cells, this fine caustic vapor made living in the room unbearable. The evaporation of the caustic solution also was so great that the diaphragm tended to harden and become less porous. I then conceived the idea of putting an apron on the cells, forthwith made Some cells with aprons, and s a d e comparative experiments with these cells and like ceUs without aprons. I found that the aprons prevented the volatilization of the caustic and also by inclosing the cathode in an atmosphere of hydrogen prevented the causlic from carbonating. I further found that, though I got a weaker caustic, my efficiencies were higher, and that t h e cells would run a longer time a t a high efficiency and give a much greater output. We found, however, that in general B cell would start up at 6 fairly high efficiency. increase gradually in efficiency, and then drop off continuously in effiicicncy. We installed a series of these cells a t the Burgess Sulphile Fiber Company where C. 8. Barton first observed that there WBS B relation between the flow of a cell and its efficiency. After this, we both, working indcpetidmtly, condnctcd many experiments to de-
As12 Furnace Connected with Incinerstor, Which in Tvrn la Cennected w i t h Portion Evaporateis
cells. It will he noticed that in the horizontd type the cathode is submerged in kerosene oil. The second cell is exactly like this, only no oil was used and the caustic was allowed to drain out of the sink as fast a s it entered. These three diagrams show one of the first vertical types of unsubmerged diaphragm cells. There
termine this relation, and finally discovered and formdated the law now known as the Rate of Flow. This, in brief, is that there is a definite relation within certain limit between the rate of flow of brine per square foot of diaphragm per ampere hour and the current efficiency of a cell. These can be controlled by adjust-
February, 1925
INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGIiVEERISG CHE_WISTRY
ing the hydrostatic head of brine therein. From this point on, all cells were made with considerable height above the top of the diaphragm so as to allow for the increase in the level of the brine. I also discovered a relation between the current efficiency and the decomposition efficiency, but will not go into this here as all the data are in print and can be easily obtained. I may add that slate in the long run was found to be unsatisfactory. Places coming in contact with the caustic softened so that it could be cut like cheese. The framework of cells is now made of cement.
Diagram 8-Boiler Setting in Which a Mixture of Liquor Dried i n Sawdust Was Used. A Is the Mixture Conveyor and B the Air Pipe
In the course of our experiments we discovered that impurities such as calcium and magnesium salts in the salt have a great effect in shortening the life of a cell. These were gradually eliminated. Sulfates also were found to have bad effects. I might go on and show the gradual changes which have been made in cell construction and cell operation, and how repairs and maintenance can be eliminated by washing with water, lactic acid, etc., but refrain from doing so as I have fulfilled my purpose in showing the effect of the great fundamental idea- viz., the diaphragm unsubmerged in the electrolyte. I have also touched upon the prime developments necessary to carry out this principle, and can thus leave later developments to the wide-awake chemical engineer.
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of black liquor as the cooking liquor for another cook. Now, simple as the process sounds, there were many difficulties in putting it into industrial operation. In the first place, the liquor from digesters has a tendency to foam abominably; and secondly, its concentration is not a simple matter a t best. On account of its foaming tendencies, it could not be handled readily in a multiple-effect evaporator, and so had to be evaporated in a disk evaporator. Secondly, there was a limit t o its concentration in disk evaporators, because after a certain concentration was reached i t assumed a gummy, rubbery, and tarry nature which baffled all attempts to handle it in this form. In order to handle it at all, the rotary incinerator was used to produce a final black ash. I first designed an evaporator which would successfully handle this liquor, but as this is another story I shall not go into it here, neither shall I mention here the cost of maintenance of the Porion evaporators. What I wish to deal with is the handling of the Concentrated liquor to that point a t which it runs as molten alkali from the smelting furnace into the dissolving tanks. The smelting operation must be so conducted that the sulfates will be reduced to sulfides if a suitable kraft pulp is to be made. When the concentrated liquor enters the incinerator, several things are liable to happen, but I shall only mention one of them here. As the black liquor proceeds down the incinerator, it is liable to form a ring around the inside damming up the black liquor on one side of the ring or dam, whereas we may have molten alkali on the other side of the ring. Then in the course of the operation the ring breaks and the molten alkali is submerged in a flood of black liquor. Steam is generated suddenly. A violent explosion takes place, and men are carried to the hospital to have their burns treated. Where an industry is built up gradually with a large excess of stolid men to draw upon, we find that in the end a crew can be obtained who have become so experienced that they take things as a matter of coune, and thus become so proficient that accidents of this sort are reduced to a minimum. Such a process is not for the volatile and temperamental French Canadian.
The Explosion Process Following the last-mentioned development, I have been constantly engaged in many industrial operations, many of which are undoubtedly known to you. I will therefore skip intervening years and take up the explosion process of recovering soda salts and black liquor. This process has been well described in print. I will confine myself to the history of the development. The Brown interests had taken over the other interests in the Burgess Sulphite Fibre Company, and had extended their operations to the extent of building a sulfate mill a t I,a Tuque, Canada. The recovery process in the sulfate pulp industry a t that time (1910) may be briefly described as follows: The liquor from the digesters was partially evaporated in disk evaporators (Porion evaporators) by means of the gases coming from the boiler plant. The liquor then went to a second set of Porion evaporators, where it was still further concentrated by means of the gases coming from the incinerator. The liquor from these evaporators went t o a rotary incinerator, where the remaining evaporation took place and the liquor itself charred to black ash. The black ash was mixed with salt cake and shoveled into a smelting furnace, which burned the combustible part thereof letting the molten alkali run to a dissolving tank, while the gases passed through the incinerator and thence through the Porion evaporators. The dissolved alkali went to the causticizing tanks, from which the causticized liquor was drawn off to be used with a certain amount
U Diagram 9-Section of a Furnace in Which Oil Was Used to Obtain the Radiant Heat. A Is the Oil Heater B the Air Pipe, C the Atomizing Air Pipe, and D the Black Liquor'Pipe
Having completed my evaporation process I turned my attention t o this problem. Before going further let me describe the smelting operation. Slabwood is thrown into the furnace, and the mixture of black ash and salt cake is shoveled therein. Air for combustion is supplied from a positive blower through pipes properly located in the furnace. The location of the pipes is very important for the smelt must not be cooled or oxidized. The smelt must flow through carbonaceous material kept a t such a temperature that the sodium sulfate will be reduced to sodium
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INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
sulfide, and yet will not:be so cooled in the operation that i t will become so pasty as not t o flow from the furnace. I may add that the sodium carbonate acts as a flux for the sodium sulfide. Certain very important facts stood out in my mind-(1) the danger of the operation, (2) the lack of production, (3) the cost of maintenance, (4)the inefficient use of the fuel value of the liquor, (5) the cost of slabwood, (6) the cost of labor, and (7) the large overturn of labor.
I Diagram IO-Furnace i n Which Tarry Producer Gas Is Used to Furnish the Radiant Heat. A Is the Gas Main, B the Air Pipe, and C the Atomizing Air Pipe
A portion of this plant consisted of a very efficient sawmill. As we had large quantities of very fine sawdust, I conceived the idea of constructing a tower in which were placed shelves one above the other for the holding of its contents; furnace gases entered the bottom of the tower, while sawdust and concentrated liquor entered the top of the tower to be flowed downward from shelf to shelf until they emerged from the bottom in a dry condition fit for feeding the furnaces. The theory involved was that with the high porosity of the sawdust the liquor would be so absorbed as to lose its cohesiveness. This worked well as long as our production was small. We also obtained a wonderful smelt. But as production increased we found we did not have sawdust enough for the purpose, and to supply its place began hogging slabwood. Then our troubles commenced, for hogged wood is not porous as is sawdust and the liquor stayed on its surface. We first twisted off six-inch I-beams, then eight-inch I-beams, then ten-inch I-beams, then twelve-inch I-beams, and finally fifteen-inch I-beams, and all to no purpose. The power consumed became enormous. Well, let's draw a curtain over these disappointments and heartburns and proceed to the solution of the problem. Coincident with carrying on these experiments I had been carrying on other experiments in relation to the utilization of the heat from the combustion of black ash. I found that, while at high temperature sublimed sodium sulfide attacked iron readily, a t temperatures below 500" F. the action was exceedingly slow. I therefore obtained a return tubular boiler and placed this so as to receive the gases from a smelting furnace which I constructed. As the experiment was regarded with suspicion by everybody I was not troubled much by interlopers. At the start I had had several of the boiler insurance companies send inspectors to make a full and complete report of the condition of the boiler, with the understanding that these same inspectors should return in a year and make a report on the condition of the boiler as they then found it. This report has been made, and may be summed up as follows: They could not see but what the boiler stood up as well under these conditions as in ordinary practice or perhaps better. I had also made some calculations as to the heat value of the liquor and, by means of available physico-chemical constants and of those which I had determined, I had figured that there was heat enough in the 50 per cent liquor to do its own evaporation and
Vol. 17, No. 2
smelting, and still leave an excess to be recovered for useful purposes. All experiments, however, which had been conducted by spraying the liquor into the fire had proved miserable failures for the spray put the fires out. I had never lost faith in my calculations, but figured that I was smothering the fire by the gummy substance. The night we twisted off the fifteen-inch I-beams we had a conference lasting almost through the night. A more discouraged bunch of engineers you never saw in your life. Then and there into my mind flashed Stefan's law, and I made up my mind that, if I could obtain enough surface a t the required temperature, I could radiate enough heat to flying particles of black liquor being sprayed into the furnace not only to evaporate the water therein, but to ignite them and thus not smother my fire. I came to Berlin, fitted up a boiler with an oil sprayer, and sprayed sulfite liquor therein. The experiment was a complete success, and I returned to La Tuque to try the same on sulfate liquor. Although we met with some encouragement, it was not the success that we had anticipated from the results of the Berlin experiments. The liquor a t La Tuque had less B. t. u. per pound. It was fusible when its water had been evaporated, whereas the dry sulfite liquor was infusible. We, however, conducted large numbers of experiments, using oil in some and powdered coal in others. We spent much time and money in constructing nozzles finely to subdivide this liquor. The trouble with oil was that it was not only too expensive, but it gave a cool zone a t the place where we should have a hot zone. Powdered coal and coke left enough impurities in the smelt so that, when we came to causticize the same, the carbonate of lime would not settle. We then secured gas producers, ran them at very low temperatures using soft coal, and thus obtained a gas very rich in tarry matters which would in combustion form a surface to radiate heat to the flying particles of liquor. Nozzles were developed so that air a t one hundred pounds pressure coming from a slit onethousandth of an inch across impinged on the liquor, thereby disrupting it to such an extent that with the aid of the radiant heat the particles caught fire in transit. The process became a commercial success. In this connection we were much troubled by the tarry products collecting in the gas conduits. One of my assistants did not understand the function of radiant heht. He operated the gas producer a t a much higher temperature to eliminate these tars, with the results that the output of the furnace became very much reduced and the quality of the product suffered greatly. When we returned to the tarry gas, the furnace resumed its normal run. It will be remembered that the sodium sulfate in the smelt must be reduced to sodium sulfide. Therefore, in atomizing the liquor into the fire we always had to bear in mind that sufficient liquor must accumulate in the furnace to form a pile of such a height that, when the high-pressure air dug into it, it would slump forward giving a carbonaceous material through which the smelt would percolate and thereby be reduced. We did not have to trouble much about this at first, however, because our difficulty was not in getting a pile, but in getting the liquor sufficiently finely divided. The salt cake was added to the liquor. Before following the development of this process I must say that, though we had solved the problem of handling the liquor, the process brought other problems in its wake. The furnace gases became loaded with sublimed carbonate and sulfate of soda. These salts condensed on the under side of the boiler, ran down back of the bridge wall, and from there either ran out of the cleanout door onto the blow-off pipes, or solidified in the space under the rear of the boilers filling up the same so that they had to be constantly removed necessitating expensive shutdowns. Other particles lodged in the boiler tubes, first as a powder and then as paste on top of this powder. This deposit solidified creating a tubecleaning problem of considerable difficulty. The first difficulty we overcame by entirely rebuilding the furnaces so that there
February, 1925
IiVD UXTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHBMISTRY
was a sharp incline all the way toward the smelting furnace. The second problem will take up too much space to go into here. A third problem was also created. The finest particles, which were extremely large in number, were neither condensed on the under side of the boiler nor deposited in the tubes. These passed with the gases through the-boiler tubes into the atmos-
Diagram 11-Final
21I
energy to explode the liquor into the furnace. Many experiments were conducted along this line, and many mechanical difficulties were encountered, for it must be remembered that we had to keep salt cake in suspension, add fresh liquor, and keep the lines and valves from plugging. The story of the overcoming of these troubles would make a long chapter, but in the
Process. A Shows the Liquor Heater, B the Cottrell Precipitator, and C the Air Pipe for Combustion
phere and traveled for miles. The waste from this cause was very considerable. We tried to precipitate these particles in a humid atmosphere, but without result. At this time Cottrell was just launching his electrical precipitation process. We sent for a static machine and apparatus for conducting experiments along this line, but the process was not then developed so as to handle our material. We had to conduct a long series of experiments which finally resulted in our putting in a precipitation plant. This was partially successful. From our experience with this and the knowledge we had obtained therefrom, we conducted another series of experiments and finally built the present precipitation plant, which, though not perfect, still operates very satisfactorily. I am getting ahead of my story. As mentioned before, I had calculated that there was sufficient heat in the black liquor to carry out the process without the use of extraneous fuel, and I never lost sight of this fact. We had conducted so many experiments on atomizing this tarry liquor that when we finally got to a stage where we were not making further progress we decided that we had gone the limit in external disruption. We finally conceived the idea of heating the liquor under pressure in order that evaporation should not take place, then suddenly relieving the pressure, and thereby using the internal
end we arrived a t complete success and had a process whereby the fuel value of the black liquor was used in generating steam, which was fed into the main steam lines. We had cut repairs on maintenance of the furnaces to a minimum by running the furnaces at constant temperatures, and we had eliminated all extraneous fuel. With the elimination of the old process, labor required was effectively reduced, the production was increased eightfold, the danger was eliminated, and the overturn of labor was reduced to normal. The product was of a superior quality, and working conditions were improved for everybody. The final developments, as before, we will leave to the wideawake chemical engineer.
United States Chemical Exports to Central America In 1923 the United States supplied $2,544,727 worth of chemicals and allied products to Central American Countries-including Panama and the Canal Zone, Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Salvador, and British Honduras-an increase of approximately 16 per cent over the 1922 exports. Panama, America’s best customer for chemical products in this territory, increased her shipments 33 per cent in 1923 as compared with 1922.
