THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD REPORT' FLORENCE E. WALL Ralph L. Evans Assobiates, New York City
GOOD reports constitute the principal evidence of accomplishment-therefore, the principal product-of any well-organized research laboratory. The only means by which the management of any company or the clients of a consulting laboratory can estimate the return on investment in research is through the constant flow of reports on everything that is planned or in progress. Records left only in notebooks-all too often legible and intelligible only to the one that wrote the notes-are useless as a means of conveying information. All such data must be evaluated, interpreted, and correlated before the results of research can become any integral part of the body of knowledge of the company that finances it. An earlier paper before this Division (1)mentioned the importance of good reports in a general discussion of the place of technical writing in the chemical cnrriculum. Three years of concentrated labor, devoted almost exclusively to the editing of reports by chemists, has shown that most chemists do not know how to write good reports and that almost all chemists cordially loathe the writing of reports. There are good reasons for this. Most chemists do not know how to write a report simply because they never were taught how to write one, nor given any drill in reporting on chemical topics. This, in turn, may he because many teachers of chemistry-especidy those that lack contact with industry-do not realize the need. Whatever the reason, the result is that most chemists emerge from school intoindustry well-grounded in chemistry hut inadequately prepared for proper expression of themselves and their work. Many a chemist has been heard to say, in no uncertain terms, that he was hired to work in a laboratory and that his time is therefore occupied more profitably by what he does there than by sitting at a deskwriting about it. That is the narrow "trade" attitude in chemistry; a more professional attitude toward it would soon convince any chemist that telling others about his work is just as much a part of it as actually doing it. Arguments being futile, the request-nay, the implacable demand-for a report often shocks the unwilling author into anearnest effort to supply the deficiency. Because most of the available hooks on reports are devoted to the interests of engineers and because most chemists do not like to study hooks on English composition anyway, this paper was first prepared to be part of a manual for the technical staff of a research 1 Presented before the Division of C@nical @uo?tion ?t the 110th meeting of the American Chemmal Soclety m Chcago, Sedember 9-13. 1946.
laboratory. It grew so far beyond the bounds of any manual that permission was asked to publish the information for the benefit of any and all chemists that may 6nd it helpful. It is hoped that they will at least skim the entire paper once and then refer later to just the part of it that contains whatever information is needed at the moment.
W h y Write Reports? A report is simply a statement of facts and conclusions, intended for some specific purpose. Much as an earnest research worker occasionally resents having to take time from laboratorv work to write a r e ~ o r tthe , requirement to do so is definitely productive df benefit because : 1) Coworkers, group leaders, and directors of research are under obligation to keep the management of a company or the clients of a consulting laboratory in constant touch with the progress of their respective investigations; 2) The work of assembling the data and org8.niziog a presentation of the results of his research helps the chemist to objectify and evaluate what has been done and to organize his own thoughts and his program; 3) The research worker has an opportunity to showwhat he can do and how he does it-not only his knowl-~ edge of the facts and his mastery of methods, but also his ability to interpret what he has learned and to im-. part his knowledge to others; 4) Patentable products and processes are thus: brought to the attention of the proper omces as early as possible. Reports constitute valuable documents in establishing the dates of conception and reduction to. practice.
Types of Reports Issued b y Research Laboratories The frequency with which reports are to he issued is governed by the nature of the work and by the terms of the agreement when the investigation is initiated. The. needs of most laboratories can be met by reports of the following types: 1) Progress report: Periodically during long investigations; 2 ) Research report: When a project ig completed; 3) Process report: Manufacturing directive for planfi; report: Which may be a 4, a) Memorandum on tecbaicat matters,, b) Record of meeting, ' c ) Literature seesch, 1
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JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
Characteristics of a Good Report
Title
The prime prerequisites of every good report are: 1) Clear understanding of the subject to be presented; 2) Adequate data, carefully evaluated; 3) Logical organization of subject matter; 4) Good English: grammar, spelling, punctuation, composition. These requirements can he met by considering, in order, the following problems: 1) Organization of the report; 2) Writing the text; 3 ) . Writing the supplements; 1) Mechanical make-up for effective display. To be as useful as possible, each report must contain suffiient experimental data to enable a reader reasonably skilled in the art to duplicate the work and check the conclusions drawn by the author. This does not mmn that the data are to be copied verbatim from notehonks, but that details in tables, charts, graphs, sketches of apparatus, techniques of operation and compounding, and calculations, as recorded in notebooks, constitute the substance of which any well-planned comprehensive report is made.
Every report should have a title. I t should be brief but comprehensive enough to indicate the scope of the subject. Distinction should be made between a title of this kind and the condensed description of the subject which too frequently is made to serve as a wandering, verbose heading for articles in scientific journals. In progress reports especially, the general title of the project should be broad enough to cover later developments in the investigation. Subtitles, as headings for successive reports, should be narrower and more specific. If the laboratory is operated under a project system, immediately below the title of the report should be the names of the project leader and author, and the nun ber of the project.
ORGANIZATION OF A REPORT
In planning a report, the author should strive for the three qualities that are demanded of all communications in business: clearness, conciseness, and emphasis. A detailed outline should be prepared, in order to organize the assembled data properly and determine the relative importance of topics, the order of presentation, and the amounts of space to be allotted to both written and graphic matter. Divisions of Subject Matter To cover all the requirements of the average report, various authorities suggest the following topics as the maximum number of divisions: Title Abstract Table of contents Introduction Summary of conclusions Prior art and patent actions Body of r6port Discussion Conclusions and recommendations Experimental section Appendices Index The information implied in all these points should be accounted for, but the order and arrangement are optional. This section outlines the nature of the information to be 'included in each division. The form that is to be followed is described in the section on Mechanical Make-up of a Report.
Table of Contents A table of contents should be included in all research reports and in all long progress reports to give the reader an outline of the presentation to follow as well as to indicate the location of topics. If there are only a few illustrations and tables, these need not be listed. If, however, either illustrations or tables are numerous, and especially if they constitute any important feature of the report, they should he listed separately as parts of the table of contents. All titles of illustrations, tables, and appendices should he identical in text and in listings. Abstract A brief abstract a t the beginning of a report should give the reader a digest of the whole subject to follow: the objective, what was done, and the results obtained. No merely descriptive matter should be included here. The number of tables, appendices, and other supplements should be stated. Although it constitutes the first page, the abstract of a report should be written last. The writing of an abstract is good practice for an author, and i t should be a comparatively simple task if it is done immediately after the report is prepared while everything is still fresh in his mind (2). Introduction The formal introduction to a report should include a brief statement of the objective and describe the pulpose and scope of the investigation. Occasionally the purpose must be justified. The history of the problem should be reviewed, including who and what initiated the study, and the delimitations specified. In a progress report the relationship of the subject to what has gone before should be stated. The introduction and abstract together should tell the whole story so that a hurried reader need not go further. A formnl letter of authorization may be included in this division of a first report; but a statement of the origin of the request usually suffices.
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sideration given to the objective, the method, and the results. A brief summary of the conclusions drawn by the The inclusion of tables is greatly to be encouraged. author (given in full a t the end of the report proper) Authors should learn to develop good judgment on the gives the reader the answer to the problem stated in adaptability of data to the tabular form and skill in the introduction. If he should not wish to read further, drafting them for best effect. A ve~bosedescription, rehe has a good idea of the whole report. quiring two or three paragraphs, can often be condensed The recommendations for future work may also be into a concise table, which is much easier to read and summarized here. The reader thus has a digest of the comprehend, especially if i t contains mathematical whole report without reading i t in detail.% data. Tables should be numbered consecutively and follow the preferred form (see next section). Prior Art and. Patent Actions A report may be illustrated by graphs, drawings, In any research laboratory the patentability of every photostats, or photographs, collectively designated as subject under investigation is of the utmost importance. figures. These also should be numbered consecutively Every report should include a brief review of the prior throughout the text. Specific references should he made art on the subject. All former and existing patents to each in the text, and the places should be plainly should be mentioned, giving numbers and countries of indicated in the margins. origin, so that obstacles to commercial development will A statement of the results of all experimental work is be brought to light a t once. important a t this point. Results should comprise: New and patentable products and processes may Factual data-for basis of judgments; warrant a separate division of the report a t this point, Analysis of these data; and a statement should be included on any actions that Essential findings; have been taken to obtain protection. This may be What is to follow. merely a proposal or a memorandum to the patent department or attorney of the company, a complete appli- Discussion cation, or anything else with direet bearing on the patA discussion should expand what has gone before. ent status of the subject. It offers an opportunity to present details that are important but which might retard the reading and comBody of the Report prehending of a report if they were included in the main The body of each report-that is, the report properbody. The topics covered in the discussion should should be a unit complete in itself, to which the pre- follow the same order of presentation (although all the liminary divisions serve only as supplements or to give individual topics of the report itself may not require emphasis to some special aspect. Depending on the discussion) and each should be complete. nature of the report, the body of it may cover the This part of the report offers a place for comment on Program of research, previous work related to the subject, for calling attenOutline of a procedure, or tion to hazards to health or necessary precautions to be Description of experiments. observed in the prosecution of the work, and especially The presentation should be a complete exposition of for consideration of possible sources of error. the subject in narrative form, preferably in simple (semitechnical) language, so that-a nontechnical busi- Conclusions and Recommendations ness executive can &-asp the essential facts. The conclusions drawn from the results of the work 1) If i t is a description of a program of research, the covered by the report should give the reader the answer report should tell him: to the problem stated in the introduction. a) What was planned, Similar to the confusion between title and subject is b) What has been accomplished, that between results and conclusions. The experienced c ) Where the present work is leading. research worker, in addition to knowing what to observe 2) The outline of a procedure should be general and and how to record the results of his experiments, should informal, telling just what was done without going into also know how to analyze his data and draw the correct a detailed description of apparatus or mathematical conclusions from them. Nothing should be included data (reserved for Experimental section). here that has not already been covered in the body of 3) Any description of experiments performed should the report and in the discussion. A brief statement of he presented as briefly and clearly as possible. The the recommendations for future related work should be logical order in which the work was done should be added here, constituting the ending of the report proper. followed, with emphasis on steps of special interest. The last page of this division should carry the signaIf several sets of experiments were performed, each set tures of the persons responsible for the report. Within should be described in a sevarate section, with con- a contpany, it is usually signed by the author and the ¶Some direotors of research prefer to call this subdivision project leader. For clients or individuals outside the "Summary and Conclusions," and give a r6sum4 of the whole re- laboratory, reports may be signed ohly by a director port as well as the conclusions. If the abstract al the beginning of the laboratory. is well written this should not be necessary.
JOURNAL O f CHEMICAL DUCATION
Experimental Section
Index
A most important supplement to every report is the section on the experiments performed in the prosecution of the work described in the report. Data in this section should be detailed and complete, covering Apparatus Materials Procedure Results The information given should be su5cient to enable another chemist or technical man to duplicate the work if desired. u s description : of apparatus should 1) ~ ~ ~ a r dAny be complete and clear enough to permit any reader familiar with the art to visualize, or even to duplicate, the equipment. The general outlines of a set of apparatus should be described first; then the details should appear in logical order, preferably following the flowsheet in manufacturing. Any novel item of specid equipment should be described in full detail, explaining the function of it in the work under cou~ideration. All dimensions should be given accurately, with particular mention of whether they are for inside or outside measurement. Diagrams of apparatus should be drawn with great care, again preferably following the flow of operations. All details mentioned in the text should be presented; conversely, irrelevant details, not described, should not clutter a drawing. 2) Materials: All materials should be listed, with the quantities used. Proprietary products should be identified by the name of the manufacturer (see Nomenclature, next section). 3) Procedure: In describing a procedure to be followed in laboratory or plant, a manufacturing directive, or tests with vroducts. evervthine to be done that has any bearing i n the s&ject"shon~ be included, in the proper order of execution, so that a reader familiar with the work can follow it, and if desired, duplicate it, without difficulty. (In some reports, the description of apparatus and procedure must be given together.) 4) Results: The results of each experiment should be given in detail, with mathematical data in good order (for form, see section on Mechanical Make-up). Statistical data should be tabulated if possible.
Relatively few reports require an index. When and if a report is so voluminous or so full of details that an index seems necessary, the author should prepare it according to standard rules of arrangement and nomenclature (3, 4). WRITING THE REPORT
From the outline mentioned in the preceding section a preliminary draft of the entire report should be prepared. The body of the report should he written first: description of experiments, apparatus used, methods followed, results obtained, and conclusions. Only relevant data should be included here; all supplementary matter, pertinent but not an integral part of the body proper or of the discussion, should be relegated to one or more appendices. Following this, the introductory supplements should be written; and &ally, the appendices should be assembled. No first draft of a report should ever be submitted for serious consideration. It should he studied objectively and carefully revised in terms of the prima prerequisites mentioned earlier--in other words, in answer to the following questions: 1) Is the discussion of the subject clear and complete? 2) Is the material presented logically? 3) Are d l relevant data and only relevant data given? 4) Are formulas correct? Graphic supplements accurate? 5) Have nomenclature, diction, grammar, spelling, punctuation, been checked? Then, if time permits, the revised draft should be set aside for a few days and re-read critically before it is submitted.
Manner of Presentation
It must always be kept in mind that a report is written for the benefit of the prospective reader, not the writer. For this reason, the style of writing should be as impersonal as possible. Certain informal (special) reports and brief memoranda may be written in the first person, but in general the third person should be used. Appendices Except in acknowledgments to collaborators, the Supplementary material, relevant to the subject of a names of coworkers should not be scattered throughout report, yet complete in itself and so voluminous or de- a report. Descriptions of experiments may be written tailed that the inclusion of i t might break the continuity in the past tense and the passive voice, especially of the main body of the report, should be assembled in when the work was exploratory and is not likely to be one or more appendices. Sets of tables, illustrations, repeated. Directives, on the other hand, are best the detailed mathematical calculations on which con- written in the second person imperative, which gives the clusions are based, bibliographies, literature searches, reader his instructions in the most direct manner. glossaries, and anything else related to the discussion Over-use of the passive construction, through a desire for self-effacement, or in an attempt not to seem offishould be presented here. All appendices should he listed separately, with their cious, frequently leads to involved inverted sentences which become clear only after repeated reading. titles, in the table of contents.
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English, Style, a d Usage
Nomenclature
I n a paper of this sort, it is not possible to give more than a few suggestions on what constitutes good English in the writing of reports. I n addition to the books on reports, all of which include some general instmctions on compo~ition,~ several other good articles and books of reference niay be helpful to those that need t o improve their technical literary style (5-8). A few books of this nature (9-11) may well be within reach on the chemist's desk, along with the technical handbooks. When there is any conflict, the benefit of the doubt should be given to the authority on technical writing. The standards for technical writing are necessarily higher than those for so-called literary writing because it is so important that the author's report convey exactly the meaning that he intended. It is an exceptional writer that can organize his thoughts in the best possible form a t the first attempt; most persons, therefore, just transfer their thoughts to paper as they come to mind and count on revision and rewriting to bring the composition into presentable form. Most authors of technical reports should do the same; hence the need for a first draft with plenty of white space for revisions. These should be made in terms of clearness, conciseness, and emphasis, giving consideration to choice of words, spelling, grammar, punctuation, sentence structure, chemical nomenclature, and finally, -general organization for most effective presentation of the subject. 1 ) Clearness: Clearness is violated by "woolly" words, such as abstract instead of concrete nouns, or a poor choice of synonyms, by overworking certain expressions and trade jargon, by long or involved sentences, and by faulty punctuation. For correct spelling of doubtful words, for syllabication, and for agood supply of synonyms by which an author can express fine shades of difference in meaning, the dictionary should be consulted regularly (12). It should be remembered, however, that the dictionary merely records usage and that it should not be taken as the last word on the finer points of technical writing. 2 ) Conciseness: Conciseness is violated by faulty judgment in the selection of details, by wordy circumlocutions in place of exact expressions, and by excessive use of the passive rather than the active voice. On the other hand, intelligibility should not be sacrificed in efforts to be concise. I n some sentences one or two words may be used instead of five;. in others it may be necessary to add several words in order to unscramble a cryptic succession of adjectival nouns. 3 ) Emphasis: Good emphasis is lost-frequently the emphasis on the important points of the subject of the report, by which the value of the work should be "sold" to the prospective reader-by incorrect balance in presenting descriptive details and by not bringing out the really noteworthy results of the research which might ultimately have scientific and commercial value. a Several are listed among the Refmaces at the end of my earlier paper ( I ) .
To standardize the technical language used thloughout a laboratory, i t is best to adopt the system of chemical nomenclature used in Chemical Abstracts and follow this consistently in all reports. Granted that it is an artificial system devised for convenience in indexing, the mere force of gravitation of a large mass must sooner or later draw everyone to it. During the transitional period, the more familiar chemical names, if used, should be followed by the C A designations in parentheses. Bulletins prepared by the American Chemical Society, in which all the rules for the newer names of chemical compounds are explained in some detail, should be available in the library of every research laboratory (19, 14). Trade names of all proprietary products should always be capitalized throughout a report. This is important for patent protection, and negligence in this matter may cause unforeseen complications a t some unsuspected future time. For the convenience of the reader, the names of commercial products should be followed in parentheses by the chemical name, if known, and th: name of the manufacturer.
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Grammar and Language
It is not too much to expect that reports written by graduates of a university should be in good languageand show a knowledge of the principles of grammatical construction. Correct use of the various parts of speech is one of the surest means to clear, concise, and emphaticexpression. Commonviolationsoftheserulesresult in a welter of dangling modifiers, long strings of adjectival nouns, preposition-verbs, faulty correlations, and other barbarisms which effectively mar the forcefulness of many reports. Some of these constantly recurring faults in reports by chemists were discussed in the earlier paper (1). I n any publication of serious intent, the use of the jargon of special trades and industries is to he deplored. Most of these so-called technical terms are merely illiterate localisms, coined by uneducated worker% because they lacked the vocabulary for better expression. One may go to the worker for knowledge of what he does, but educated writers of reports need not use his terms for operations, especially in reports that are to be read by other educated persons, many of whom may not be familiar with the field under consideration. There is no idiom in "jargonese" that cannot he expressed better in good technical English. The correcting of all these faults in technical writing, especially the writing of reports, can come only through constant practice. The changes indicated in the editing of,a report should he carefully studied to determine why each change was made, and the knowledge thus gained should be applied when the next report is written later.
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Covering Letter
Paging
Some directors of research prefer to incorporate the ahstract of a report in a covering letter which is then submitted with the report to directors or client. If the author of a report is requested t o furnish information for such a letter this should be prepared in good form and supplied with the report.
The numbering of the pages of a report should start on the first page of the text proper, using Arabic numbers, centered a t the foot of any page that carries a major heading, and a t the upper right of all succeeding pages, including the appendices and index, if any. All preliminary supplements, starting from the formal title page (which carries no number), are given small Roman numerals, usually centered below the last line.
MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A REPORT
Certain features of the mechanical make-up of a report that are common to all will be discussed here; special features of the different types of report will be described in the next ~ e c t i o n . ~ The entire text of a report should be double-spaced, with good margins, t o allow room for editing, and preferably typed. If hand-written, the equivalent of a line of space should be, left after each line of writing. (As a precaution against loss-or editing-the author should keep a copy of his report as originally submitted for reference.) Title Page ~ ~ fon the ~ fbrmal ~ title ~ page ~ of at i should answer the questions: What? The title of the report, well displayed near thetop of the paper. F , , ~ whom? ~f for a for reference include number of project. By Whom? Name(s) of author(s). where? ~f the work was done outside of the laboratory; otherwise, the author's laboratory is understood. When? Period covered by the work described. ~ ~ shouldt give hthe information ~ ~ required with the title of the report. The formal title page is usually prepared by the Editor. Table of Contents I n a formal report the table of contents will follow the title page. It should be headed simply Contents and occupy only one page, if it can possibly be so arranged without overcrowding. It may be single-spaced. The entries, which should follow the rules for the capitalization and punctuation of titles, should he listed in the. exact order followed in the report, eving all major divisions of the subject and the principle subdivisions. For easy reading, each entry should he connected with the number of the page by a line of dots or dashes (in typed reports, hyphens). If any topic should occupy several pages, only the first number should be given. If separate lists of tables and illustrations are given, they should follow the table of contents, giving the exact title of each as it appears in the text. Occasionally, a single number covers a set of small illustrations or tables; if these are s a c i e n t l y important, they may be listed under the title, giving the number only once. The form of numeral t o be used follows those in the paging of the report. 4 ~t must be remembered that this paper was origjnalllly type written to serve as a guide for reports that will he issued in typewritten, not printed, form.
Abstract I n reports that carry an abstract this is a separate page, riot The introduction should start a new page, not numbered.
Report Proper and Discussion The body of a formal report usually starts on a new page. ~ ~The heading of it should be the title of the report in condensed form. The discussion may follow it Or start a new Page. No strict requirements can be made for the divisions and subdivisions of the subject matter in the body of a report. Headings should he adequate descriptive terms or statements and follow one another in logical order. All subheadings should indicate the topics that foUow, avoiding vaguegeneralities like "Discussion," "Results," etc. The heading should never be made the implied' subject of the sentence that follows-that is, the first sentence under it should be a complete thought without the heading. The manner of designating the headings and subheadings in the divisions of a report is fairly well standardized. MAJOR DIVISIONS may be listed by breaks in the text, with headings in capitals centered as shown above, In many reports, subdivisions may be adequately as
Side Headings, as indicated here, with an extra space before a new major division, If, however, the subject can he presented better as an outline, the following succession of steps is gener+lly used: I.
NUMEIEALSfor MAJOR DIVISIONS, either at, the margin as here, or
I. CENTERED, LIKE THIS Principal subdivisions are then designated by A. Capikzl with pwiod, either indented three spaces (if I. is flush), or A. Shrting the (if I, is In typing, the side heading for a major subdivision may h e either in capitals, not underlined, or in capitals and small letters, underlined. All other side headings are usually underlined (indicated here as italics).
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In either form, the text should start a t the customary space for parrtgraphiw (5,8, or 10 spaces in typing), and he carried back to the margin, a~ this is. Secondsry subdivisions are designated by 1) Arabicnumwal, single parenthesis, indented three spaces. The paragraph of text starts where this one does and is carried back to the margin. Further subdivisions are designated by a) Small letter, single parenthesis: Paragraphs start here. Text indented to this line. (1) Numeral, double parentheses. Paragraphs start here. Text indented to this line. (a) Small letter, double parentheses.
long list of citations may have the names of the authors numbered in alphabetical order; references in the text should then be made to the numbers, in increasing order of numbers when several are given. This arrangement is usually more satisfactory than a straight numerical order throughout the report, leading to a confused array of names in a bibliography. It also avoids the use of the ibid., op. cit., and lac. kt., which often clutter the footnotes in the text and necessitate leafing back to find the original reference. Most publications have an established form for citations, using different fonts of type. The limitations of typewriting.make it necessary to modify this somewhat, To prevent over-long narrow columns in subdivisions md the followingforms have been found satjjfactory. of the text, the step-down arrangement may be varied If a bibliography is included, the reference in a footby setting note may be brief, as follows: a) Topicr Followed by block of text, all indented. a) For an article: Author(s), surname(s) only; abbreviation for name of journal, underlined; number The details of the final arrangement are optional with of volume, page (year). the director and the editor. Many versions of the Ezampler Russell, J. Biol. them., 156-467 (1944). mechanical arrangement are shown in various textbooks. b) For a book: Author($, surname(s) only; full title of hook (underlined); page(s) cited. Footnotes Information that is pertinent to the text, and yet not an integral part of it, may occasionally be necessary. In general, however, footnotes should be used sparingly; in most technical papers, information that is important enough to be given in a footnote can usually be incorporated in the text. Most footnotes refer to citations in the literature. I n a typed report, the number of the references should be rnn into the text thus /25/. The numbering of notes may he either for a single page or for an entire report. The former system offers the advantage that the order may be changed, and notes may be added or taken out without disturbing the order on the other pages. When there are Or frequent references are made to certain ones, it is advisable to place them together a t the end of the report. A note should then be made under the first reference to indicate the page where all will be found. Conclusions and Recommendations The detailed presentation of the conclusions and recommendations may also start a new page or continue as a major division. Cifations are ~~f~~~~~~~ to the literature, if few in usually given as footnotes on the appropriate pages of the text. Any large number of citations, however, is best segregated into a Bibliography at the end of the report. This division may even be large enough to constitute a separate appendix. For ease of reading a
12Wand the note should be placed at the foot of the same page, setoff below the text in single specin:, like this. In doublespaced typing, the reference may be raised to the intermediate space.
Example: Suter, The Organic Chemistry of Sulfur, 202-205.
In a bibliography (or in a footnote, if no bibliography is included) references should be complete, as follows: a) For an article: Author(s), surname(s) first, then initials; title of article, properly capitalized; name of periodical (or accepted abbreviations) underlined, lmelude series, if noted, in brackets]; volume, year (in parentheses). Ezample: Russell, 9. A. Note on the Colorimetric Determination of Amino Nitrogen; J. Biol. Chem., 156 [21: 467468 (1944).
b) For a book: Author(s), as for a); full title of book, capitalized and underlined; edition, if noted; publisher, shortened form acceptable; city, year. Example: Suter, C. M.: The Organic Chemistry of Sulfu~;Wiley, N,Y+ 1944.
Whenever possible, primary sources, i. e., original hooks and articles, should be cited. If for any reason these have not been obtainable, both the primary source and the secondary source through which it was quoted should be given in the reference. Acceptable forms are as follows: Examples: Schmieschek, U. Photographic Infrared Effect of Silver Sulfide. 2. wiss. Phot., 40:219-230; through Phot. Abstr., 22: 198 and C. A,, 37: 4021-9 (1943). Radcliffe, R. S. Casein Paints; Ch. 15 (pp. 461-481) in Protective and Decorative Coatings (J. Mattiello, Ed.); V01.111. Wiley, NewYork, lg43.
A reference to a patent should give: number, with abbreviation for country of origin; author(s) or assignee (name or initials of company); date of application, Ezamvles: USP 1982 149; Barmaine (to General Aniline Works); 7/4/21. USP 2 352 524; Evans and MeDonough (to Sales Afliliatetes); 6120138.
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For easy reading, long lists of patents are best arranged in groups of'five o r ten, with commas omitted and spaces substitued.
Svmbols and Formulas
In mathematical formulas, symbols are commonly used to express certain quantities. Those that are generally accepted in science and engineering may be Abbreviations used freely, especially when there is no doubt that they Regardless of what personal system the chemist may will be understood by the reader of the report. Others, have invented for his own notes, ahbreviations used in when adopted by the author to serve his own needs, reports should conform to those that have been officially should always be explained in a footnote or glossary. accepted and are generally understood. Here again, In choosing symbols of this kind, the author should the system followed by Chemical Abstracts may well be keep in mind the limitations imposed by processing and adopted for uniformity (15, 16). use only characters that can be readily reproduced in Handbooks are a t variance on the use of periods with typewriting. ahbreviations. In print they are less obtrusive, but in Symbols and formulas should not he used in place of typewritten reports--except where there might be am- words throughout the text of a report. Short chemical biguity-and in the headings of tables, periods may be formulas may be used in equations and as the headings omitted. of columns in tables, but the names of the elements and compounds are preferable in the descriptive portions Mathematical Data of the report. Smgle symbole and short formulas should Pages of mathematical data should be checked most never be used a t the beginning of a sentence. Graphic formulas should be given in the most recent carefully and critically, both as to substance and as to form. An equation should be dropped and centered on form accepted by the Commission on the Reform of the a separate line from the preceding text; and for good Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry (IS). Doubtful appearance the signs of equality in succeedmg equations ones can be checked in the indices of Chemical Abstracts or in the Ring Index. They should be spaced as economishould be aligned wherever possible. Greek characters in mathematical formulas should cally as possible, but drawn large enough and clearly be indicated a t the exact spot in the formula, and from enough to permit accurate copying by nontechnical this a line should be drawn to the margin, where the a~sistants.~All positions of substituents and bonds name of the character should be written in full, e. g., should be carefully checked. alpha, mu, rho, etc. The correct character will then Tables appear in the finished report. Tables should be numbered serially for each inNumerals may be used throughout the text of a report except at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph; vestigation, designated-by Roman numerals, and each this can usually be avoided by a slight change in con- should have a brief title. Tables occupying less than struction. Authorities differ on conventions for the half a page may be run into the text of a report; those representation of numbers-that is, on just which occupying a page or more should be numbered as sepanumbers should be in words and which in figures. For rate pages in the body of the report, when submitted. uniformity in the reports as issued, the following mles A few isolated tables to which frequent reference is made may be incorporated in the final text. Otherwise, should be observed: if there are several of them, all tables may be placed 1. Use numerals for exact quantities, decimals, com- together in an appendix. The exact location of tables pound numbers, percentages, units of t i e , should be carefully noted throughout a report by specific measure, ratio, distance, dimensions, all values mention in the tcxt, or by expressed with abbreviations, and temperatures Insert Table 00 here. (except zero). Tables should conform as closely as possible to the 2. Spell out simple numbers below ten (except in a following: series of numbers). and all a~~roximations. ., . 3. Express fractions as decimals wherever possible, Table I with a cipher before the decimal point. Brief Title (Centered) 4. Use percentages only to express exact quantities that are parts-of-a-hundred. Never express an approximation as a percentage. Headings Of Columns Equal Lines If Possible 5. Quantities considered as units take singular verbs; Centered Under Headings e. g., 300 grams was added. Below last line of data, drop one line and close box. Large numbers should be pointed off when the group The .problems associated with processing should be consists of more than four digits; that is, thousands below ten may be left in one group (7000), but above kept in mind when tables are planned. Depending upon ten thousand, numbers should be written in groups of 6 A handy device for this is a stencil showing hexagons in three, separated by commas or spaces (16,275, 12 500). severalsizes, sold in the many art and stationery stores.
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the number of headings required, tables may be arranged across either the width or the length of the page. If across the length, space sufficient for binding should always be allowed above the table. In presenting data: 1) Condense headings as much as possible, setting them obliquely if necessary. 2) To avoid repetition of units in columns, include them in the headings. 3) Wherever possible, use decimals instead of fractions and align the decimal points. 4) . To avoid confusion with numerical data, -references to footnotes in tables should.be given an asterisk (*), or preferably, a small letter (a). Authors should hold themselves responsible for the checking of all data in tables and indicate all corrections in copy. Typists should not he expected to make revisions. Long tables may be either on a folded sheet or continued on a second page. In the latter form, To be Continued should be written a t the foot of the first page, and the title of the table (followed by Continued) should appear a t the head of the second page. Some tabulated matter in the text of a report does not warrant the importance of a numbered table with a formal heading. Such data-usually consisting of only a few lines-may be set in columns, each with an appropriate heading, the whole centered, and mentioned in the text as a Summary.
If possible, drawings should conform to the size of the pages of a report (8.5 X 11 inches), and allowance should be made for an adequate binding margin. They may, however, be of any size that necessity demands, provided that the dimensions will permit convenience in folding and that the folded sheet will not be bulky. 3) Photographs: Whenever necessary, photographs may be submitted for inclusion in a report, but i t must be remembered that these represent the most expensive type of illustration, and, when original prints must he used, present technical difficulties in mounting, which may make them unsatisfactory in the finished report. When possible, photographs may be reproduced by photostat in the same size, or larger, or smaller than the original. Each photogaph should be marked lightly in pencil on the back, and a dummy should be prepared, showing the desired layout and all legends. Whenever possible, several photographs should be grouped on one sheet. TYPES OF REPORTS
The purpose and characteristic features of each of the types of reports mentioned a t the beginning of this paper will be described here so th,at prospective authors will know what is expected of them when a certain type of report is requested. Progress Report
A progress report should be prepared periodically (once a month, or every two or three months as agreed) during the course of any long-term investigation. One When a report is submitted, all illustrative material may be requested, however, at any time by the direcshould be interleaved where reference is made to it in tors of a company or by a client. If all notebooks are the text. In the fmished report, the illustrations may kept up-to-date, the preparation of such a report beeither be placed a t the points of reference or assembled comes only a matter of routine. in an appendix. To avoid confusion with the nnmberThe accumulation of progress reports on any investiing of tables all illustrations should have Arabic nu- gation should be like successive chapters in a book. merals. Pages, tables, and illustrations should be numbered 1) Graphs: All graphs should be drawn on special consecutively so that the entire set will be a unit when paper that is available, and submitted in finished form, completed. To prevent crowding, the dates for these ready for processing. The layout should conform to reports should be staggered. the requirements of the finished r e p o r e t h a t is, the Much or little, the information for a progress report customary binding margin should be left a t top or side. should be submitted to the director of research on For the form of titles, legends, etc., the author should schedule. The form in which it is to be transmitted confer with the editor before these are typed on the f u r t h e y t h a t is, whether as a formal report or as a graph. It may he better to submit a dummy of the letter-may he left to the discretion of the director. lavout with a c c o m ~ a"n v i ntext. ~ so that the ~ r i n t i n por typing will conform to thz standards of the bffice. Research Report The symbols and types of lines used on graphs should A research report should be issued on every investigabe those commonly accepted and understood by those that. are to interpret the graph. The explanation of tion when it is completed. On short-term projects, these conventions may be found in any of several stand- therefore, it may he the only one issued. For long investigations a Research Report should represent a ard books of reference. condensation of all the progress reports. Line Drawings: Diagrams of apparatus and flow2) The material, as submitted, should conform in all sheets of processes should be drawn in good form on good details to the requirements described here. white paper, all ready for processing. For uniformity in finished drawings, it is preferable to have keys, leg- Process Report ends, and other lettering typed on the drawing or A process report (also called a manufacturing directive) assembled in one corner. These should be furnished on a dummy, from which they can be copied by the typist. is issued whenever a compound has been successfully Illustrations
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prepared in the 1aboratory.and is, in the opinion of the Director and the author, ready to be tried in a pilot plant or a commercial plant. For uniformity and simplicity, the following typical form may be followed: D ~ C T I OFOR N~ MANuFACTUE~NG OF
Material required
...
(Center all items) Equipment (Center all items) Procedure Into a
100 Ib. 50 lb. 7.5gal.
10
... ...
... place
...
and agitate for . . . Then remove contents of vessel to m d add lb. . .:
... .
List all quantities of materials used in the wide space as noted above; align decimal points and units. Place all notes together a t the end of the directions. A process report should be exhaustively complete in all details relating to the process described so that anyone trying to follow it could expect to duplicate the, results exactly. Special Reports A special report may be required a t any time on any subject. 1) Technical Memorandum The prime purpose of a technical special report is to keep company correspondence clear of technical information that still should be part of the permanent files. It may be in the form of a memorandum to the project leader, to the director of research, to the directors of a company, or to a client. It may be information on some project under investigation which is or is not intended for the client, or on strictly intralaboratory affairs. Depending on the length of the communication, it may be submitted as a regular report, in a cover, or made a supplement to a letter. 2) Record of Meeting a) Conference Any regular or occasional conference with diiectors or clients should be the subject of a special report (which may or may not be sent on to the client). Before the conference, each person who is to be present should prepare a list of agenda (literally "what is to be done"). These topics should be brief statements as reminders, in the order to be followed during the conference. At the conference, someone appointed to serve as secretary should keep careful notes on the agenda, summarizing: (1) Work done on each topic to date; (2) All comments made on each topic by anyone present; (3) Recommendations and suggestions for continued work.
A copy of the original agenda and full notes on the conference should be submitted to the office a t once. The report should be signed by whoever served as secretary - pro . tem. b) Minutes The minutes of any regular meeting of standing or mecial committees a t the h b O r a t 0".~ and . esoeciallv of any meeting that is attended by delegated representatives of the laboratory, should be the subject of a Special Report. The requirements for a report of this type must necessarily be flexible within wide limits. Minimum data should include: Name of group (organization or committee), Time and place, Occasion (if special), Major actions taken, and Conclusions and recommendations. Space need not be devoted to reports that were read a t the meeting unless they convey important information, nor to motions made and seconded unless pertinent action was taken on them. The report of a Committee Meeting should always be signed by the person that served as secretary (regular or pro tern). 3) Literature Search In any research laboratory a complete file of reference literature on projects under investigation or otherwise of interest is of the ut;most importance. To prevent overlapping by later investigators, each report on the literature should be deliunited as follows: Subject of search (delimitations), Requested by, Scope (sources consulted), Results (summary of information found), Abstracts. References may be a t the foot of each page of the report or assembled a t the end; if many references are made to the same source, the latter arrangement is better. This may be left to the good judgment of the searcher, but for the sake of uniformity it is suggested that citations be given in the forms earlier in the report. PROCESSING OF REPORTS
By the processing of a report is meant everything that happens to it from the time the author submits it until it is issued-diting, revisions, preparation of master copies for duplicating, preparation of illustrations, and assembling. Each of these steps takes time; and when any step must be repeated, it also becomes expensive. Function of the Editor Most research laboratories have an e d i t o ~ i fnot someone with the formal title, a t least someone that takes to heart the problems related to the issuing of reports. The real function of an editor is to edit copy-that is,
MARCH, 1947 to ~ u itt into good form for mintinp or ~uhlication. heo ore tic all^, this means merely marking copy with notations for styles of type, spacing, etc.; actually, it usually involves a certain amount of revision of copy, attention to spelling, punctuation, grammar--English in general--and much condensing of the subject matter. But here it should end. The editor should not he held responsible for the correctness or the correcting of mathematical data (even simple arithmetic), chemical formulas, and equations. If all the points covered by this paper were standard practice by all authors of reports in research laboratories, the work of an editor would be considerably simplified. The following routine may he found helpful in an effort to meet all requirements. First Draft of Report The original copy of the author's finished draft of a report, typed or hand-written, in double spacing and with generous margins, should be submitted to the office in charge of reports, where it should he recorded and sent to the editor. At this stage'it is considered a first draft. The author should keep a copy for reference. Any report that has been subjected to major revisions by the editor should be referred to the author for approval before it is copied. Any questions about suggested changes and revisions should he discussed with the editor immediately. As far as possible all changes in copy should be made on this draft. Badly mutilated copy should be retyped for the author, in whole or in part, if required, and again submitted for approval; otherwise the edited copy may be sent to the typist. Second Draft of Report The revised form of a report--called the second d r a f k h o u l d he typed in either double or single spacing, dependmg on the form in which it is to be issued. It thus serves like a printer's proof, to show how the finished pages will appear, and indicate the placing of tables and other illustrations. The carbon copy of the second draft should be referred to the author. If further changes are necessary, they should he reported to the editor and amended, or newcopy should be furnished on separatepieces of paper. Revised copy should he marked "Approved (0. K.) with corrections." Final Form of Report Depending on the number of copies that are to be made of a report, the h a 1 form as issued may he typewritten with carbon copies or duplicated by mimeograph. Because for the second process, every page of the report must be cut into a stencil on waxed paper, this means one more reading of proof by the author. Nothing should ever be altered on the stencils, these being the responsibility of the stenographic department. Only changes of vital importance should be made on these proofs-no capricious improvement of literary style on last-minute inspirations.
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Proofreadino and Readinu Proofs Provided that the report has been prepared according to the suggestions given here, it may he assumed that it is free from errors of fact. To ensure its being free also from typographical errors, all copy should he proofread in the stenographic department. Proofreadmg is a mechanical process by which the work of a compositor (here, a typist) is checked against original copy to see that it has been correctly transcribed. A good proofreader checks every character of the copy, and the typist is held in error only for details that vary from the copy. If a proofreader occasionally gives thought to the sense of what has. been copied, this should be considered purely gratuitous. The only responsibility on the proofreader is for typographical errors that are not caught when draft is checked against the original copy. Anything that is not clear is usually noted in the margin with a question mark or "~uer~." Reading proof is an entirely different operation. Here the author criticallv reads his r e ~ o r tfor sense and sound and for one la& good look herore it is put in final form. In reading the proofs of a technical report, the author should read with both his eyes and his mind, checking chemical nomenclature, formulas, equations, calculations, footnotes, and cross references. All queries should he answered. Frequently, the omission of something, which has been entirely overlooked in the original copy, looms large when it comes back in a revision. As the spotting of errors of this kind is entirely the responsibility of the author, the reading of proofs should be considered, not as a chore that is unworthy of serious attention, but as a welcome opportunity to avoid trouble for himself and both trouble and expense for the personnel of the office. Errors of omission and commission, as,found by the author in revised copy, should he noted in the margin by the use of standard proofreader's marks."ll corrections and changes should be written in the margin, a t the foot of the page, or on a separate piece of papernot crowded between lines of a copy, especially in single spacing. The place of insertion should be plainly marked in the text. CONCLUSION The foregoing presentation covers the requirements of the types of reports issued by the average research laboratory. Additional types may be required and the h e points of individual forms may vary somewhat, but any chemist that really knows and applies the information given here should be a great comfort to any director or editor. Such a concentrated distillate from long experience and many good texts can serve only as a superficial remedy for an extremely irritating, chronic condition. 0 Proofreader'smarks are published in many stmdardtextbooks on English and on reports. They may also be obtained from almost any printer.
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The basic trouble lies deep, in the lack of fundamental imtruction. Skill in technical writing is rarely innate, and it can never be taken for granted. Like any other art, it must be learned by study of basic principles and steady practice. Those that have not had special training in expression for chemistry, as well as in the study of chemistry itself, and who may wish seriously to improve their knowledge of the principles of technical writing, will find several of the books and articles in the following list helpful. Representative books on this subject should be available in every library associated with a research laboratory. The greatest need, however, is for more courses in technical writing. Along with foreign languages and a course on chemical literature, instruction in the writing of reports, abstracts, and other technical literary forms should be included in the list of tool subjects required for every student of chemistry that hopes to make a living by it, whether in teaching or in industry. If such a course has not been included in the undergraduate curriculum where it belongs, it should be available to graduate stndents and required as an extracurricular activity. Certainly, no graduate in chemistry should be foisted on the chemical industry without knowledge of this important skill. Teachers of chemistry on any level, who do not warn stndents of what will be expected of them and a t least show them where and how they can be prepared for it, are seriously remiss in their obligation to industry. Instruction in technical writing should not be left to the English Department. Many teachers of courses on exposition can and do teach writing on technical snbjects. They are to be commended, but it is devoutly to be wished that more teachers of chemistry should be able to teach technical writing. It is far easier for them to learn the use of their language merely as another instrument of precision than it is for even the best teacher of English composition to acquire the necessary minimum of background in science. Proper courses of instruction will help the reports of the future, but the current need is urgent. The reports in the files of a research laboratory constitute capital investment and its most valmble asset. They
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
should be obtainable with the least expense of time and effort. It is hoped, therefore, that this tabloid presentation may be of help to our contemporaries. By ready reference to the various sections of this paper, authors can soon familiarize themselves with the r e qnirements for the.specific type of report that is to be written. Each will thus help materially in the coucerted effortto bring all the reports from research laboratories to standards of excellence of which all directors -and all chemists-may be proud. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author acknowledges with thanks the permission of Dr. W. E. Hanford, formerly Director of the Central Research Laboratory of the General Aniline and Film Corporation, and of Dr. Ralph L. Evans to publish this paper. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES (1) WALL,F. E., J. CHEM.Enuc., 20,580 (1943). ( 2 ) THURBER. S.. "PrBcis Writing." -. Little. Brown and Comoany. . .. ~ o s t o n ;1936. WALSA,J. W. T, "The Indexing of Books and Periodicals," Edward Arnold & Company, London, 1930. Subject Index, Chemical Abstrads, 37, 1 (1943). FOWLER, H. W., "Modem English Usage," Oxford bniversity Press, New York, 1944. AND L. S. S. HO~FMAN, "Report GAUM,C. G., H. F. GRAVES, Writing," Rev. ed., Prentice-Hall, New York, 1946. R. C., AND M. J . EDWARDS, "Aids to Technical JORDAN, Writine." Universitv of Minnesota Eneineerine Emeriment ~'iation,~inneapolis,1944. (8) WOOD,G. M., AND B. H. LANE,"Suggestions to Authors," 4th ed., U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1935. G.B. AND C. L. DRET, "New Businesg English," (9) HOTCEXISS, American Book Company, New York, 1932. (10) RICKARD, T. A,, "Technical Writing," 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1931. "Handbook of College Campo(11) WOOLLEY, E. C., AND SCOTT, sition," 4th ed., D. C. Heathand Company, Boston, 1944. (12) Webster's "Collegiate Diotionaw," 5th ed., 1945. (13) PATTERSON, A. M.,?. Am. Chem. Soc., 55,3905 (1933). et al., "Rules for Naming Inorganic Compounds," (14) JORISSEN J . Am. Chem. Soc., 63, 889 (1941). ~ublishedbv the (15) Abbreviations used in Chemical Abstrads.. . A. C. S. (16) American Stsndardrds Association, Abbreviations for Scientijc and Engineering Terms,Bulletin Z . 10.1, 1941.
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