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new preparations are added per month, and in most cases these cost from three to ten times the value of the material made. We believe that with the support of the American chemists we can finally make a success of this undertaking, and we are prepared to continue it in that belief. It is of no use to ignore the fact, however, that the next year will be a critical one for the undertaking, and if the American universities decide to purchase German chemicals, which may be sold a t a lower price than we can supply them, we shall be forced to discontinue this work. If chemists continue to purchase the chemicals from us we hope that finally we shall be able to prepare and supply them a t prices comparable with those a t which they can be purchased from abroad, and with that object we are prepared to continue our work. EASTMAN KODAKCOMPANY ROCHESTER, NEWYORH
THE EXAMINATION OF THE COLLEGE TRAINED CHEMIST FOR GOVERNMENT SERVICE By WILLIAM J. COTTON Received August 11, 1919
There are over one thousand institutions in the continental United States that style themselves as colleges or universities. Previous to the entrance of this country into the World War, the United States Civil Service Commission had recognized a large majority of these institutions as coming under the heading “college or university of recognized standing.” In the pre-war days the examinations of the Commission were for the most part “assembled;” that is, competitors were required to report a t designated places throughout the country and submit to a competitive written examination. With the advent of war this slow ‘method of maintaining registers of qualified eligibles was no longer practical. A more rapid method, requiring a minimum of work on the part of the Commission, had to be devised. The assembled type of examination had almost invariably been used to fill positions paying salaries up to $1800. To fill the relatively few positions paying more than this amount the “non-assembled” type of examination had frequently been used. This latter type of examination consisted of a rating on the sworn statement of education and experience of the applicant as set forth in the application he had filed with the Commission, subject to such corroborative evidence as the Commission desired to secure. To meet the war demand for qualified technical and scientific workers, the Commission decided to use the non-assembled type of examination to fill all such positions except where the government department concerned might request otherwise. Owing to the rather stiff qualifying requirements, the nonassembled types of examination had, previous to the war, produced usually but few applicants. The difficulty of arranging the applicants in the order of merit was not great. The applications could all be compared and rated at one sitting. The extension of the non-assembled types of examination to the lower grade technical positions, and a t a time, too, when for patriotic and other motives, thousands of technical men were answering the call of the Government, meant that on any one of many examinations hundreds of applications might be expected. Because of the lower salaries offered in the low-grade positions, a large amount of practical experience along technical lines could not be required as a prerequisite for consideration. The problem, therefore, essentially resolved itself into that of a just rating of the general and technical education of the applicant. From January 1917to January 1919,the writer served as chemical examiner for the Civil Service Commission. During the first year of this time he was privileged to be associated with Mr. Anton Prasil, now with the National Aniline and Chemical Company. Since the leaving of Mi. Prasil, the writer has
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handled the chemical end of the Civil Service work. Chemists and more especially the faculties of the chemistry departments of our colleges and universities, might be interested to know something of the “education” rating given on the chemistry examinations of the Commission, When the Commission made the decision above noted, three problems immediately presented themselves for solution : First, the vague. expression, “college or university of recognized standing,” which had theretofore been used in announcing examinations, must be replaced by an equivalent expression, the meaning of which would be definite and easily understood by the applicant. Second, for each examination announced, such prerequisites must be established as would insure that the previous training and experience of those passing the examination would qualify them to fill the position for which the examination was held. Third, it was necessary to determine, as accurately as possible, the relative value of the chemical training given a t each college or university from whose students and graduates applications might be received. These problems are stated in the order of increasing complexity. The first problem presented but little difficulty. Conferences with the Bureau of Education, together with the inspection of numerous college catalogues, resulted in recommending to the Commission that by “college or university of recognized standing” should be meant an institution requiring for entrance at least 14 units of high-school work, and for graduation an additional 118 semester credits of college work. It was further suggested that the substance of this recommendation be substituted in the printed announcements of examinations in lieu of the vague phrase theretofore used. The recommendation and suggestion were adopted by the Commission. For instance, the announcement of the junior chemist examination contained this statement: “Applicants must have graduated from a college or university which requires for entrance a t least 14 units of high-school work, and for graduation an additional 118 credit hours. By credit hour is meant * * * * ” It is of interest to note a t this point, that of the institutions coming to the attention of the examiners, five hundred and thirty-one of them met this requirement. Whether or not there are more that could qualify, the writer is not in a position to state. Probably about five hundred and fifty could qualify. The practical operation of this clause soon suggested a further modification. It was found that certain institutions enjoyed an enviable reputation, and yet did not absolutely require more than 8 or I O units of high-school work for entrance. Many students entering these colleges, however, presented a full 14 units of work. In justice to these, the statement was reworded to read: “Applicants must have graduated from a full fouryear high-school course or have completed 14 units of highschool work accepted for college entrance. In addition applicants must have graduated with a degree from a college or university with the completion of a t least 118 credit hours of which * * * *, By credit hour is meant one lecture or recitation or two hours of laboratory work per week per semester.” This wording put the burden of qualifying on the individual applicant and not on the institution. Such a statement stood the test of almost two years of practical usage with uniformly pleasing results. It constituted the solution to the first of the problems above enumerated. Because this article is written primarily for those interested in the college training of chemists, the writer will describe how the second and third problems above noted were solved in the case of one particular type of position, that of junior chemist. The selection of the junior chemist is made because the particular type of chemist sought through examinations of this title is the college graduate, .who has majored in chemistry, and who need necessarily have had no practical experience. Chemists not meeting these requirements are provided for through other
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examinations. The entrance salary of the junior chemist is between $ 1 ~ 0 0 and $1800. The demand for junior chemists in the government service is greater than for any other one grade of chemists. The practical solution of the problem presented was reached only after several months of closest study and after the trial of various modifications of proposed solutions. Only the general outlines of the results can here be presented. Almost simultaneously with the adoption of the new phrase to supplant “college or university of recognized standing,” a committee composed of representative chemists from each of the scientific and technical bureaus of the Government met a t the Cornmission to determine what should constitute the minimum chemical training’ required of those entering the Service as junior chemists. In other words, this committee was to decide what should constitute the minimum, so far as the Government is concerned, for a major in chemistry. The judgment of the committee was afterwards accepted by the Commission and may be summed up in the following language: Applicants must have completed a full four-year high-school course or have completed 14 units of high-school work accepted for college entrance, and, in*addition, have graduated with a degree from a college or university with the completion of a t least 118 credit hours, such a course to have included at least 30 credit hours in chemistry, of which at least 6 must have been in general chemistry, 3 in qualitative analysis, 8 in quantitative analysis, and 8 in organic chemistry. It will be noted that of the 30 credit hours prescribed for chemistry, only zj were specifically described. The remaining j credit hours were to be elective with the applicant. It was hoped that the majority of applicants would present physical chemistry as elective. An applicant just meeting these requirements would receive a rating of 7 0 per cent which is the passing grade on the junior chemist examination. The majority of the graduates who have majored in chemistry have had considerably more chemistry than here prescribed. Such applicants of course get ratings above 70 per cent, and are thus higher on the eligible register resulting from the examination. I t will be apparent to anyone after careful thought, that, in general, the larger institutions are better qualified to teach chemistry than are the smaller institutions. The chemistry faculties of the larger institutions are composed of men each of whom is an expert in his particular field of chemistry. The physical equipment of such institutions is superior t o that of the smaller institutions. So also will be the library facilities. More than all else, however, there is in the larger institution what may be called an ksprit de corps, which apparently weaves into a young chemist’s training a certain chemical intuition, and takes from him the fear of professional Competition. I n these respects a wide range exists between those institutions that no more than meet the junior chemist requirement and those that are by common consent recognized as the leaders of chemical education in America. It was therefore determined to classify the colleges and universities. All other factors being equal, an applicant from Class I would receive a higher rating than an applicant from Class 11, and so on down through the classification. The balue of the practical work done by the graduates of an institution is the best index obtainable of the value of its course. Prior to the war, the Government had drawn most of its chemists from less than roo institutions. The reason for this limited source lay in the fact that only occasionally did the remaining institutions give chemical instruction adequate to enable its graduates t o pass the written examinations. Lists of these institutions, with new ones added, were prepared and submitted t o each of a number of the technical and.scientific bureaus with the request that these institutions be grouped into five classes, and that such classification should be based so far as possible upon the value of the work done in that bureau by
graduates of the various institutions. It is interesting to note that with but few exceptions the classification of the institutions by the various bureaus were, in general, in close agreement. With these lists as a basis, the classification was started. The chemistry sections of the catalogues of over 5j o institutions were next studied, the data contained in each being tabulated. When this study had been completed it was felt that each of four of the original five groups could be subdivided. This was accordingly done, giving nine groups in the final classification. Of the 531 catalogues meeting the requirement of a college or university of recognized standing, twenty-nine were unintelligible to the extent that it was necessary to discard these catalogues and obtain the necessary information by correspondence!: Of the remaining 502 catalogues, fourteen indicated that their institutions gave no chemistry whatever. The study was therefore concentrated on the chemistry departments of 488 institutions, each of college grade and in each of which chemistry is taught. The following tables will show the number of institutions falling‘into each of several classes based on the number of semester credit hours offered in: /I-Tota1:chemistry 11-General and inorganic chemistry V-Organic
111-Qualitative analysis IV-Quantitative analysis chemistry
TABLErI-SEMESTER CREDITS OF TOTALCHEMISTRY OFFERED Below 30 31-40 41-50 51-65 66-80 81-100 100-up 28 26 Institutions 185 107 50 53 41
TABLEFII-SEMCSTER Institutions
HOURSOF GENERALAND CHEMISTRY OFFERED Below 6 6-10 11-17 37 32 1 104 CREDIT
INORGANIC
18-up 26
TABLE 111-SEMESTER CREDITHOURSOF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OFFERED Institutions
Below 3 87
3-8 342
9-up 59
TABLE IV-SEMESTER CREDIT HOURSOF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS ORPERED Institutio#s
TABLEV-SEMESTER Institutions
Below 8 236
8-12 124
13-24 91
25-up 37
CREDIT HOURSOF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY OFFERED Below 8 8-12 13-20 21-up 227 177 52 30
f- Table V I will show the number of institutions falling into
each of several classes based on the number of individuals on the teaching staff of the chemistry department. The column headed “less than one” includes those institutions in which the chemistry teacher also teaches a t least one other subject. TABLEVI-NUXBER OF CHEMISTRY TEACHERS Less than 1 1 2 3 4-5 6-9 10-14 15-19 20-39 40-up Institutions 188 104 59 32 3 8 29 17 5 11 5
A surprisingly large number of institutions give unbalanced chemistry courses. For instance, there are three institutions which offer courses in qualitative, quantitative, and organie chemistry, but, as far as their catalogues would indicate, offer nothing in the way of general or inorganic chemistry. Five institutions offer courses in general, quantitative, and organic chemistry, but apparently provide nowhere for training in qualitative analysis. Thirty-six offer general, qualitative, and quantitative, but no organic. Nineteen offer general, qualitative, and organic, but no quantitative. Fourteen offer only general and qualitative, with provision for neither quantitative nor organic. Thirty-three offer general chemistry only Eleven offer gereral and organic only. Two offer qualitative and organic only. The above figures, together with the experience of obtaining them, offer an interesting basis for constructive suggestion. Many will be surprised to learn that probably 7 5 per cent of our institutions make a practice of recruiting their in-
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structional staffs from among their own graduates. Many of the smaller colleges cannot afford to pay the salary required to get a graduate of another institution. It is necessary for them to capitalize the loyalty and inertia of their own graduates. This practice, however, is not confined to the smaller colleges. The assignable reason for its practice by the larger institutions would seem to be the high esteem with which they regard their graduates. An interesting example of this is a certain wellknown institution on the eastern seaboard. Its chemistry faculty consists of eight members, one of whom is emeritus, Of the remaining seven, all received a t least a substantial portion of their education a t that institution. Such a practice, if continued, can but lead t o a narrowing of the mental vision of its instructional staff. The war brought women chemists to the front. Heretofore, women have studied chemistry much as they studied astronomy, for the pure pleasure of the study itself. With their entrance into the industrial world an additional viewpoint must be acquired, namely, that of making themselves valuable as chemists t o their employers. Industrially and in governmental service women appear to be particularly adaptable as analytical chemists. Yet it is a fact that the majority of women’s colleges emphasize quantitative analysis to a lesser degree in their curriculum than any other branch of chemistry. The high cost of print paper has not been without its advantages. I t has tended to eliminate an undesirable custom practiced by a number of our institutions. The evil referred t o is that of padding the catalogues. Certain institutions seem to vie with one another in the bulk, offerings, and gorgeousness of their catalogues. The chemistry sections of these catalogues are not freeTfrom this vice. Courses are announced and described in the catalogues of certain institutions which require special and extended physical and chemical equipment and instructors trained along these special branches of chemistry. The size of the institution, its assets and income indicate that it has no such equipment. Its catalogue shows no instructor qualified to handle the course. And yet it is announced as being offered. This practice should be stopped. Such a catalogue fools no one but its authors, the student victims, and the parents of the latter. Most educators have devoted thought to the problem of the relative time to be allotted in a curriculum to each of the various courses of chemistry. No argument is needed to sustain the assertion that all branches do not require the same amount of time. Yet in probably 40 per cent of our institutions the mechanical arrangement of the institution’s semester schedule will determine the time to be allotted to the study of a particular branch of chemistry. Some instructors are partial to threehour courses, some io four, and some to five. For instance, one institution coming under survey gives six credits of general and inorganic, six of qualitative, six of quantitative, six of organic, and six of physical. The writer is advocating no special scheme of time allotment. This must depend on the judgment of the individual instructors, on the purpose for which the course is offered, and on the equipment and library facilities available. But such a course as that outlined above shows the entire lack of appreciation of the time element in outlining a curriculum. Mechanical convenience of the schedule should be among the less important factors taken into consideration. During the course of the investigation, the above interesting facts regarding the chemistry departments of our institutions came to light. The writer is not in a critical mood and the above suggestions are made because it is felt that they will be welcomed as an aid in the solution of the reconstruction problems now before the chemistry departments of colleges and universities. COLOR LABORATORY BUREAUon CHEMISTRY WASHINGTON, D. C.
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BIBLIOGRAPHYON THE USE OF ‘‘CUPFERRON” AS A QUANTITATlVE REAGENT By S . A. BRALSY
Received June 9, 1919
From a survey of the standard texts on analytical chemistry it seems that “cupferron,” the ammonium salt of nitrosophenylhydroxylamine, has not been given due consideration as a quantitative reagent. From the results obtained by various investigators, it should be a reagent of exceptional value as a selective precipitant. It is my purpose here to call attention only to the many uses for which it may be employed and give a complete bibliography of the work that has been carried out on the subject. 0. Baudischl first suggested the use of “cupferron” for the separation of copper and iron. He shows that iron is quantitatively precipitated by “cupferron” from strongly acid solutions, while copper is not precipitated under the same conditions. On the other hand, copper and iron are both precipitated from slightly acid solutions while nickel is not, thus affording a separation of copper from iron when present together and of iron and copper from nickel when all three are present. Again the copper salt is soluble in concentrated ammonia solution, thereby making an easy separation of copper from iron when both are precipitated together. Baudisch and King’ state that the precipitate of iron thus obtained settles rapidly and is easy to handle. It is soluble in ether, chloroform, and acetone, and thus can be dissolved away from lead, silver, mercury, and tm if they should in any manner contaminate the precipitate. Biltz and H6dke,* Hanus and S o ~ k u p ,and ~ R. Freseniue have carried out more extensive investigations showing that not only is this separation very clean-cut in the case of copper and iron from nickel but they may also be separated from solutions containing aluminum, chromium, cobalt, zinc, alkaline earths, and manganese. The iron may also be separated from lead and bismuth in addition to those metals already mentioned. With the present increasing number of alloys having as their chief constituents the elements just named it seems that this reagent should greatly facilitate the ease and rapidity of their analysis. Bellucci and G r a d , * and Thornton7 find that from solutions acid with hydrochloric or sulfuric acids titanium is precipitated as well as iron, thus giving a method for the separation of titanium and aluminum and a t the same time making a determination of the titanium, as its salt can be directly ignited to the oxide (TiO,). Thorntons has also extensively investigated the use of “cupferron” for the separation of zirconium and thorium from iron and has apparently obtained satisfactory results. James Brown8 by using the data of previous workers together with that of his own on zirconium has made an excellent separation of iron, titanium, and zirconium from manganese and aluminum. His data show that great accuracy is possible in a determination of this kind. He precipitates the iron, titanium, and zirconium from cold solutions containing 25 cc. of sulfuric acid ( I : I ) in 1.50 cc. of solution. He analyzed the filtrate containing the manganese and aluminum by the ordinary methods and treated the precipitate in the following manner: It was ignited to give the combined oxides, these were taken into solution, and the iron precipitated with hydrogen sulfide in the Chem.-Ztg., 33 (1909), 1298-1300; J. Chem. SOC.,[Aiil 1910, 76-77 THISJOURNAL, 3 (1911), 629; Chem. A b s . , 6 (1911), 3780. 3 2. anorg. Chem., 66 (1910), 426-31; J. Chem. Soc., [Aii] 1910, 550. 4 2. anorg. Chem., 68 (1910), 52-56; J . Chcm. SOC.,[Aii] 1910, 899. 5 2. anal. Chem., SO (1911), 35-43; J . Chcm. S O C ,[Aiil 1911, 336. G Atti accad. Lincei, [ 5 ] 32 (1913), 30-34; J . Chcm. SOC., [Aiil 1913, 250; Chcm. Abs., 7 (1913), 1688. 7 A m . J. Sci., [4] 37 (1914), 173-8; J . Chcm. Soc., [Aiil 1914, 299; Chcm. News, 114 (1916), 13. 8 A m . J . Sci., 37 (1914), 407; 38 (1914), 137. 0 J . A m . Chem. S O C 39 , (1917), 2358-66; Chem. Abs., 11 (1917), 3190. f
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