THE JOURNAL OF INDUXTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Nov., 1921 50/55 Cc. 60.014 0.014 54.981 0.019
50/55 Cc. 49.993 0.007 54.979 0.021
50.019 0.019 54.972 0.028
49.974 0.026 54.969 0.031
60.029 0.029 54.980 0.020
50.016 0.016 54.967 0.033
100 c-c .~ . _..
99.776 99.987 100.026 99.990 100.012 100.004
0.024 0.013 0.026 0.010 0.012 0.004
The above 100-cc. flasks were chosen a t random from forty-eight consecutively graduated, and checked against weights. One out of every six of the remaining flasks was tested against the calibrating buret. The extreme range was FLASKS CHECKED WHEN 60/55Cc. 50.00 54.99
50/55 Cc. 50.01 55.00
50.02 55.00
49.99 64.99
60.00 55.00
49 * 99 55.00
so.02 54.99
49.99 54.99
50.00 55.00
50.00 55.02
50.00 55.00
50.00 55.01
50.00 55.00
50.01 54.99
100 cc. 100.01 100.00 99.98 100.00 99.99 Q9.99 99.97 100.01 100.00 100.01 99.98 99.99 99.99 100.00 99.99 100.02 100.00 99.99
~SSUED
300 Cc. 299.98 300.02 300.00 300.02 299.99 300.02 299.98 299.97 300.02 299.97 299.99 300.01 300.02
500 Cc.1 499.97 499.95
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99.98 to 100.02 cc. Many of these flasks have been rechecked when issued to the factory laboratories and appear in the foregoing lists. A similar method of marking has been considered by the author but has not been tried out. I n this a very fine capillary tube of glass replaces the electrodes and tinted water the diluted acid. At the instant of contact of the capillary tube and the water, the latter shows clearly in the tube. The author found a description of this method of measurement in an old edition of Mohr’s “Titrirmethode,” after he had used it several years.’ This method of measurement may be applied in determining the specific gravity of viscous material that cannot be tested with the customary appliances, using instead a tube or cylinder. For example, molasses, freed of air by suction, is weighed in a tube of 15mm. internal diameter that has been calibrated with a modification of the marking device. Water is measured upon the molasses from a closely divided buret until contact with the electrode is made. The calculations are obvious. The accuracy of measurement in this case in so far as regards the electrode device, is approximately 0.01 cc. The electrode would be in fixed position. This method could be used with larger vessels, e. g., of 50 mm. diameter, with accuracy of the third decimal place. The work of marking and caIibrating the flasks listed in this paper is by Mr. Joseph B. Harris, Control Chemist and Assistant Superintendent, Cardenas (Cuba) Refinery.
ADDRESSES AND CONTRIBUTED ARTICLES The Forests of the United States as a Source of Liquid Fuel Supplyz By Ralph C. Hawley YALEUNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN,CONNECTICUT
The purpose of this paper is to present a concise statement showing the amount of wood available for conversion into liquid fuel which can be produced annually on the forest lands of the United States (Alaska and insular possessions excluded). The forested area of the United States is as follows: TABLE1.-AREA A N D GROWTHOF AREA FORESTED Acres
CHARACTER
245,000,000 Second growth forests 81,000,000 Waste !and on which nothing is growing or likely to grow without reforestation 137,000,000 Virgin forests
463,000,000
FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES1 PRESENT GROWTH POSSIBLE GROWTH Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft.
THE
5,995,000,000
14,700,000,000
Nothing Nothing
4,860,000,000 8~2203000,000 27,780,000,000
5,995,000,000
1 All
figures in this table are taken from “Timber Depletion,,,Lumber Prices Lumber Exports and Coocentration of Timber Ownership Report on Sehate Resolution 811 by The Forest Service, U. S. Depaitment of Agriculture.
To-day the annual growth of wood is approximately six billion cubic feet. The possible growth, provided the lands are properly restocked after cutting, and protected, is conservatively estimated at twenty-seven and three-quarters billion cubic feet per year. Not all of this annual growth would be availablefor manufacture into liquid fuel. Lumber and numerous other forest products must be provided for. Each year approximately twenty-six billion cubic feet of wood (far in excess of the present growth and taken principally from the accumulation of virgin timber) are removed from the forests, distributed as shown in Table 11. 1 Five measurements with 100-cc. calibrating buret in calibrating and in checking. 2 Presented before the Section of Cellulose Chemistry a t the 6 l s t Meeting of the American Chemical Society, Rochester, N. y.,April 26 to 29, 1921.
TABLE 11-AMOUNT OF
W O O D REMOVED ANNUALLY FROM THE THE UNITEDSTATE@
CUT Lumber Fuelwood. Other products.. Destroyed by fire, insects and fungi..
FORESTS OF
Equivalent in Standing Timber, Cu. Ft.
................................ ............................. ........................ ....... TOTAG ...........................
8,913,300,000 10,450,000,000 4,955,615,000 1,730,000,000 26,048,915,000
1 All f i g u r e s 5 this table are taken from “Timber Depletion,,,Lumber Prices, Lumber Exports and Concentration of Timber Ownership Report on Senate Resolution 311 by The Forest Service, U. S. Depaitment of Agriculture.
Out of this total cut, at least 4,800,000,000 cubic feet cut for lumber are lost through waste in the woods and a t the mills. Adding to this the 1,730,000,000 cubic feet destroyed by fire, insects, andifungi gives a total of 6,530,000,000 cubic feet of wood annually wasted which should be available for liquid fuel, without encroaching upon the supply needed for other purposes, Furthermore, the possible annual growth (27,750,000,000 cubic feet) exceeds the annual requirements (26,000,000,000 cubic feet) by 1,750,000,000cubic feet, furnishing an additional 1,750,000,000 cubic feet for liquid fuel. TABLE 111-ESTIMATEOF AMOUNTOF WOOD FOR LIQUID FUELWHICH COULDBE SECUREDFROM FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES WITHOUT ENCROACHMENT UPON SUPPLY OF OTHERFOREST PRODUCTS Cu Ft - .. Waste in the woods and a t the mills ~,800,000,000 Losses from fire, insects and fungi (taken out in thinnings) 1,730,000,000 Excess Of possible growth over annual cut (taken out in thinnings) 1,750,000,000 Increased growth due to more intensive croD management (taken out in thinnings) 2,750.000.000
..........................
TOTAL.....
11,030,000,000
Finally, the increased growth which will follow intensive forest crop management, particularly the removal of small wood in 1Spencer,
“Handbook for Chemists of Beetaugar Houses,” 1897.
.
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T H E J O U R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Vol. 13, No. 11
The cost of the raw wood laid down at the plant should mot exceed 7 cents per gallon OF alcohol secured. For an annual production of one million gallons of alcohol to be maintained indefinitely 16,129 acres of land would be required. Approximately 645 acres would be cut clear each year. Each acre when cut clear would yield 5220 cubic feet or 1566 gallons of alcohol. EXAMPLE 3 . Douglas Fir in Western Oregon and WashivzgtowWest of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon and Washington, Douglas fir is the chief commercial species and is used largely for lumber. Approximately 15,400,000 acres west of the Cascades are nonagricultural lands suitable for growing Douglas fir. On an 80-yearl rotation for lumber as the chief product, the annual production of these lands is estimated a t over 2,000,000,000 cubic feet, of which 800,000,000 cubic feet could be removed annually in thinnings. Allowing 30 pounds per cubic foot of wood and 20 gallons of alcohol per ton of wood, the annual production of alcohol from wood taken out in thinnings totals 240,000,000 gallons, or 3.2 per cent of the alcohol needed to replace the present output of gasoline. If i t is desired to grow Douglas fir as a crop for complete utilization as liquid fuel, a 40-year rotation should be used. On the better-grade lands, a production of 275 cubic feet of wood could be produced per acre per year, or 82.5 gallons of alcohol. The cost of the raw wood laid down at the plant shouId not exceed 9 cents per gallon of alcohol secured. For an annual production of one million gallons of alcohol to be maintained indefinitely 12,121 acres of land would be required. Approximately 303 acres would be cut clear each year. Each acre when cut clear would yield 11,000 cubic feet or 3,300 gallons of alcohol.
thinnings, should amount to not less than 10 per cent of the possible growth, or 2,750,000,000 cubic feet. This gives a total of 11,000,000,000 cubic feet, as summarized in Table 111. How much liquid fuel will this 11 billion cubic feet of wood produce? I n making the calculation a cubic foot of wood is taken as weighing 30 pounds and a ton of wood as yielding 15 gallons of alcohol. On this basis the 11,000,000,000cubic feet of wood will rurnish an annual output of 2,475,000,000 gallons of alcohol or 33 per cent of the total amount of alcohol needed to replace the present output of gasoline. The cost of the raw wood lsid down at the manufacturing plant is estimated to average 25 cents per gallon of alcohol produced by present methods, although where the proper region and species are chosen this figure may be reduced to 7 cents a gallon. (See Examples 2 and 3.) It remains for the chemists to develop improved methods of utilizing the cellulose more completely, thereby increasing the output of liquid fuel secured from a ton of wood. Professional foresters may be expected to cooperate fully with the chemists in their efforts to utilize wood as liquid fuel for at €easttwo reasons: First, because utilization of waste in the woods and at the mills will clear the forest of material now unsalable which is often a dangerous fire and insect hazard, and second, because the opportunity to dispose of small trees in thinnings will make more intensive forestry possible, and this in turn will increase the quality and quantity of forest crop production. It is realized that the utilization of wood as liquid fuel on a large scale is not likely to come for a decade or more. I n order to have available when needed the largest possible annual supplies of wood, forested areas must without delay be protected, scientifically cut, and completely restocked. For this reason the support of your organization is desired for measures looking to better care of the nation’s forest resource.
EXAMPLES Three examples are added to show the results possible in different sections of the country in growing forest crops for liquid fuel. T h e first is for hardwoods in Connecticut, which are of relatively slow growth. The other two examples are given to indicate the possibilities in the South and the West with rapidgrowing conifers. EXAMPLE 1. Hardwoods in Connecticut-The forests of Connecticut are of mixed hardwood character, the principal species being oak, hickory, birch, maple, and ash. They cover an area of 1,500,000 acres and are capable of producing not less than 67,500,000 cubic feet a year. One-third of the growth, or 22,500,000 cubic feet, could be removed each year in thinnings and converted into alcohol. At present this class of material is not generally utilized. Connecticut hardwoods are estimated to average 40 pounds per cubic foot and to yield 10 gallons of alcohol per ton of wood. The 22,500,000 cubic feet on this basis will yield annually 4,500,000 gallons of alcohol. The cost of the raw wood laid down a t the plant is estimated to be 28 cents per gallon of alcohol secured. EXAMPLE 2. Shortleaf Pine in Virginia-Shortleaf pine is one of the southern pines and has a commercial range of more than 150,000,000 acres throughout the southern states. It would be an excellent tree to grow as a crop for conversion entirely into liquid fuel. A 25-year rotation’ shows a wood production of 208 cubic feet per acre per year. Allowing a weight of 30 pounds per aubic foot of wood and 20 gallons of alcohol per ton of wood the annual yield of alcohol per acre would be over 62 gallons. 1 These figures are taken from United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin SO8 by W. R. Mattoon, “Shortleaf Pine: Importance and Management.”
Industrial and Technical Photography
~
During the last few years photography has developed as an important Factor in industry, commerce, and science, and a number of large concerns have established permanent photographic departments as an aid to better efficiency in administration, engineering, research, buying, selling, advertising, education, cooperation, etc. Mr. John H. Graff, of Brown Co., Berlin, N. H., is planning to make a survey of the use of industrial and technical photography. With this end in view, he is asking those interested in the subject to send him samples of different types of photographs used; a short statement of how and why photography is being used, as in field, office, plant or research; information as to how far an outside photographer is employed; or, if the users have photographic departments of their own, a history of the development of the same. Methods of mounting, filing, and reference are important; also statements of the costs and upkeeps of the departments and their value and importance. Would it be advisable to recruit help for photographic department From the photographic profession, or to develop employees for this work? Should our technical schools develop men as photographic engineers to meet the growing demand for practical, industrial photographers? After this information is received, Mr. Graff plans to combine it in a complete history of the development and uses of industrial photography, to be published in a technical magazine. The more each one contributes to an article of this kind, the more valuable i t becomes. Mr. Graff is also making the following inquiries: Would a convention of the users of industrial and technical photography be of any value? If so. would you pledge your presence and support to a convention of this kind, and where would you suggest this to be held? If enough interest could be aroused, the plan would be to arrange a conference with an exhibition of all forms of technical and industrial photographs, and with lectures on different photographic subjects in relation to industry, science, research, and commerce. 1 See “The Productive Capacity of the Douglas Fir Lands,” by T. T Munger,University of California, Journal of Agviculluw, November 1916,QZ.
