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make a fair first coating; they fill the pores and prepare the wood for the second coating, which is a heavy one. High-grade hide glue has proved to be the only practical second coat material. It has resilience and elasticity, is unattacked by oil and forms a smooth, impervious coat. The wood barrel has many good points. On account of its “barrel” shape it can be easily rolled on a fairly smooth surface and will roll by gravity on tracks. Transportation of packages into the warehouses, cars or steamers is thus an easy problem. This barrel can be easily repaired without machinery, with a few special tools by an expert cooper; broken heads, staves and hoops can be easily replaced; the interior can be readily cleaned and reglued. When full, it is a remarkable fire-resistant. It is cheap. It has one great disadvantage, the seeming impossibility of making it do what it is made for-hold liquids without leaking. Aqueous liquids of course swell the wood enough to keep the barrel tight, but oil barrels left out in the hot sun or stored in cool warehouses must periodically have their staves redriven to make them reasonably oil-tight. THE IRON BARREL
I n recent years the iron barrel has been coming more and more into use. These packages are made entirely in large establishments through the outgrowth of smaller stamping operations or recently by companies organized for their exclusive manufacture. They are made in several sizes from g to I I O gallons capacity. The I S - , 30- and gg-gallon drums are the sizes used in the petroleum industry. Several patented and unpatented features, such as the form of the chime, the arrangement and kind of faucets and bungs, the use and method of application of hoops, make talking points for the various varieties. These barrels, or drums, as they are ordinarily called, are made from 16- to 19gauge iron, according to the use to which they are to be put. The lighter drum is usually designed t o sell outright to the customer, while the heavier ones are sold on some sort of return basis. Thirty round trips is not too much to expect of a good drum used with care and systematically repaired. I n their manufacture the sheet iron is rolled out in heavy shaping machines, the heads are pressed by heavy presses and they are put together in much the same way as all sheet metal containers from pill boxes to dish pans. Gas or electric welding has replaced in recent years riveted seams and tightly pressed chimes, making a tighter, stronger and neater package. The ordinary “barrel” or bilge form is used in a few iron drums but the greater number of them are cylindrical. The bilge form can be easier rolled on runways and headed up. The cylindrical form, if the hoops are well made, dents less easily and generally stands abuse much better than the other form. The one great advantage the iron barrel has over the wood barrel is t h a t i t can be made oil- and naphtha-tight. If not too badly damaged it can be made tight again after puncturing. I t s chief disadvantages are that oxide will flake and fall off on the inside, thus contaminating the liquid, particularly if the empty barrel is allowed to become rusty. This barrel is difficult to handle and it is very expensive. The difference in price between the two kinds of packages is of course much greater now than in peace times. T H E TIN CAN
No one has yet invented a satisfactory small container for non-corrosive products to replace the common tin can. It is made in countless shapes and sizes to contain talcum powder, French peas, paint, axle grease and gasoline. The small tin or sheet iron package has driven the small wooden one entirely off the market. Many designs of wood paint kegs which were formerly made have been replaced by metal ones. Cans for the petroleum trade are made of metal from 26 to 2 8 gauge, either tin or terne plate. They are made by semiautomatic and automatic machines which cut, shape and solder
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with amazing rapidity. The standard 5-gallon can is made in enormous quantities, one of the seaboard refineries having a daily capacity of 120,ooo cans. I n such cans burning oils and naphthas are shipped to all parts of the world, particularly to South Africa, South America and the Orient. They are packed two cans in a wooden case. These cases can be carried on the backs of animals over mountains and on the backs of men through the jungle where barrel goods cannot be transported. The empty cans are made use of in innumerable ways. A great many of them come back to us from the Orient filled with Soja bean and tung oil. They cover roofs, patch leaky boats, and serve as containers for many substances. A large business has grown up in recent years in automobile oils. As this is a highly advertised business it is largely a package one. Every cross-road grocery store now carries a few fancy, lithographed cans of oil, grease and soft soap. These cans are usually made more carefully than the unlabeled packages; they have special pour-out spouts and sealing devices for prevention of fraud. The transportation of cased goods in the refinery and warehouses has been developed very highly. Special elevators, belt and roller conveyors carry empty cans and full cases from floor to floor, building to building, into box cars and into the holds of ships with very little handling. Before the advent of the automobile, “oil” to the average layman meant kerosene, linseed, or the small bottle on the pantry shelf labeled “Sewing Machine Oil, will not gum,” which was used also on the lawn mower, door hinges, razor strop and bicycle. Many thousands of these small bottles are sold for domestic lubricating purposes each year. The total volume of oil in them is small, however, as a 2-doz. case of 4-oz. bottles contains less than one gallon. Their sale is more of a grocery and drugstore business, discussion of which would carry us far beyond any reasonable limits of the transportation and storage of liquids. -~
THE HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION OF LIQUIDS By M. H. EISBNHART. of t h e Eastman Kodak Company
This question of the handling and transportation of liquids on an industrial scale is one which necessarily must absorb considerable attention and thought in normal times, and especially is this so now, when the chemical industry generally is being so greatly expanded in this country. The developments along this line are taking place so rapidly that many materials, which only yesterday perhaps we were concerned with in the smaller laboratory way, to-day we may be handling in lots of many tons. This question then of the handling on a large scale of some new chemical or even one with which we are very familiar, necessarily means the investigation and use of many new processes, which in turn means a study of the many problems of how best large quantities of liquids can be handled for the particular end desired. This problem pertains to many different kinds of chemicals, such for example as very light liquids or oily materials, the heavier viscous oils, liquids carrying solids in suspension, acids or corrosive liquids, etc., and it is the last of these, namely acids and more particularly nitric and sulfuric acids with which this paper is concerned. For the sake of convenience, I have chosen to look a t the subject from two separate angles: I . TRANSPORTATION BETWEEN P u N T s - I f , for example, you are operating a plant here in Rochester and find i t to advantage to purchase large quantities of sulfuric acid in Buffalo, Cleveland, or even farther away, then, of course, somebody must concern himself with how that acid is to be gotten here. 11. LOCAL TRANSPORTATION-FOf example, YOU have a stock of sulfuric acid on hand a t the plant, how are you storing it, how do you inventory it, how do you get certain quantities when you want them, how do you weigh it for use, how do you get
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it from one building t o another, etc.? These, of course, all sound simple, but a t times the simplest chemical t o handle, a t least as you would suppose, may puzzle one the most before just such questions can be answered. TRAYSPORTATION BETWEES PLANTS
For all the smaller quantities of liquids there is, of course, available the carboy or drum. For C . P. acids, carboys must necessarily be used for obvious reasons; and in fact where C. P. nitric or sulfuric acids are used in large quantities, the carboy is always used. If, however, purity is not a prime factor, then drums, and in even larger shipments, tank cars are used. While the initial expense in the use of cars is quite heavy, yet i t is quite easy t o realize t h a t the saving in the loading and unloading of a carload of say 40 to 50 drums is beyond comparison. The drums are either pumped out direct or dropped into a tank from which the liquid is then pumped. A tank car can be either pumped out direct or can be piped up and the compressed air turned on. This is quite a common method for unloading cars and by the application of 20 t o zj lbs. a car can soon be emptied. Since these tank cars are the property of the concern making and selling the acid, the man buying the acid is only interested in the simplest and most satisfactory and economical way of getting i t out of t h e car, and distributing it for storage or use. Other acids, such as acetic, hydrochloric, etc., are generally handled in the small containers, the former for example often being shipped in wooden barrels. LOCAL TRANSPORTATION
I n considering this phase of the question several very evident subdivisions suggest themselves : ( I ) Types of liquid t o be handled. ( 2 ) Kind of metals or other materials t o be used. (3) Means of power t o be used. (4) Type of valve t o be used. (5) The question of measuring or weighing. The headings show a t once how much more there is to this part of the study than t o the first part, because of the larger number of individual problems which must be solved. And now let us look these over in order: ( I ) TYPE OF LIQKID TO BE HasDLED-If we are concerned with acids only, then we must consider the handling of a corrosive and probably thick liquid. Besides this, however, we may be asked t o handle a thin solvent such as alcohol, or a thick, heavy, pasty solution such as a nitrocellulose solution, or a liquid carrying some heavy salt in suspension. These conditions are all of the utmost importance, not only t o aid in coming t o t h e decision as t o what kind of power can be used, but also t o the other more important question as to what kind of containers, pipes, pumps, etc., will stand up in the particular case. This question of the type of liquid t o be handled is really the basis of this whole subject, for as you think over the matter you will soon see that it is the determining factor, in not only this consideration of metal or material t o be used, and t h e kind of power as just stated, but also in the selection of valves t o be usecl as well as in the question as to what method of measuring or weighing can be employed. ( 2 ) CHOICE OF METAL OR OTHER X A T E R I A L to be Used for the containers, pipes, valves and in fact all apparatus which comes in contact with the liquid under consideration. I might say that anyone having t o do with a chemical plant in which new problems are continually coming u p for solution, can follow no better practice than to start tests with small samples of various metals or other materials when working with liquids, which may eventually be handled on a commercial scale. It is advisable to do this so that these questions can he answered by the time the laboratory investigations have reached such a point t h a t the chemical engineer is prepared to adapt the whole process to a commercial scale. Quite frequently you may find that unless you have such information available, and it can very seldom
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be gotten as you need it from any hooks, you may make heavy investments for apparatus which must only too soon be torn out and entirely replaced with something of a different nature. \X7e are accustomed, from time t o time, as a new problem arises which involves some new chemical or even chemical combination, to cut small strips of various irons, copper, nickel, tin, aluminum, etc., of say l , ; ~X 4 or 5 in. and t o suspend these half immersed in a small bottle of the material under consideration. A record is then made periodically of the different effects both by the liquid itself and by the fumes. I r o n and Steel-All things considered, undoubtedly iron in one of its various forms, such for example, as cast or malleable iron, steel, or the more recent alloys of iron with silica, is the most common of the metals employed in the chemical industry; and rightly so, for there are now comparatively few processes in which it cannot be used. For the great quantities of sulfuric and mixed acids now being used in nitrocellulose manufacture, steel is almost exclusively employed. Of course for nitric alone, it is not suitable, but as this is always handled for this work in a mixture with sulfuric, steel can well be used. And now the introduction of the alloys of iron and silica which have come on the market under the trade names of Duriron, Tantiron, Buflokast, etc., has made it possible t o handle much weaker grades of sulfuric acid as well as nitric alone. I might say that the discovery of these irons and the willingness of some of the firms making them t o cooperate with those running chemical plants have made many of the most troublesome problems very easy. In places, where up until recently i t has been necessary t o use stoneware, with its high breakage and other attendant difficulties, we can now use these special cast irons and apparently can see no reason for any further anxiety. X very good example of this is the condensation of vapors during the manufacture of nitric acid. Of course, besides for all these large quantities of acids, iron and steel are the most used metals in the alkali industry. Stoneware, Glass and Silica V'are-The stoneware industry plays even yet a big part in the chemical manufacturing line, but it is not what i t was a few years ago. -4s stated above, the high silica irons have displaced many of the old stoneware installations. I feel pretty well convinced t h a t the time will come when there will be very little of it used. We find for instance where we have occasion t o handle very hot weak nitric acid t h a t we can now almost completely displace the stoneware. This means a big saving financially, not only because of the breakage of the stoneware itself, b u t also when you consider that to replace any piece of apparatus means necessarily a n interruption in t h e output of the plant, which may be even much more costly and inconvenient. As for glass, it still remains a very important and necessary factor in the production of C. P. chemicals. Closely related to it is the silica ware, which is now extensively advertised. This is just as fragile as glass, but has the additional advantage of being able t o stand rapid and extreme thermal changes without breaking. These materials, naturally, are used only where absolutely necessary for just this reason. Wood-For the handling of weak acid solutions, wood is very well adapted. For gravity handling in a n open trough, wood can also be used very well. Then there are the specially manufactured log lines and ball valve wooden pumps, which are well adapted for certain liquids. Alz~minuvz-While it is not possible t o handle any alkalies in aluminum, yet it can be used very effectively for certain work. -4s an example of this, in the handling of pure glacial acetic acid, aluminum can be used without any bad effects. I t is also very suitable for the handling of very weak solutions of nitric and sulfuric acids. The great argument for the use of aluminum is, of course, its light weight. Enamel-The process of baking an enamel on iron which is
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done, for example, by the Pfaudler Company here in this city, has wrought a complete transformation in many industries, such, for example, as the breweries. All sorts of big tanks which were previously made of wood have now been replaced with this enameled iron. Besides all kinds of big tanks enamel-lined, this ware is more and more being applied in kettles, piping and all manner of special apparatus. It is particularly adapted for use in the hauling of edibles and drinks, and it is found t o give very satisfactory results, where its use is possible. Copper-I merely mention this, as it is not applicable a t all for practically any acid work, except acetic. Lined Pipes-Because of the rapid strides which have only recently been made in the lining of pipe with tin, copper, lead, etc., and the satisfactory resulting product, I must mention it here. For example, in nitric acid work, where ordinary lead pipe is used, i t is very possible that this lead-lined iron pipe would be more satisfactory. ( 3 ) MEANS O F POWER TO BE usED-After solving the problem as to what kind of container shall be used for handling any liquid, of course the next question is, what means shall be used t o move it from one point t o another?
Gravity-Wherever possible it is naturally advisable t o arrange the layout of any plant so that liquids as well as solids can be moved through each successive step of the process by gravity, which, of course, leaves nothing t o get out of order and no cost for power. It is only in comparatively few plants, however, that this is possible, and it is with the others, which we will now concern ourselves. Of these, we have Syphon. This can be used and is quite frequently, even when air pressure is used. It can be used very nicely where liquids are lowered from a n elevated tank t o one below or even t o one about on its own level. Alone, however, the syphon is not entirely dependable for large work Air Pressure is probably as simple a method of moving liquids in general, and nitric and sulfuric acids in particular, as can possibly be found. It is true t h a t a compressor is needed, which means the operation of blowing acids, and is probably not as economical as t o pump them; but the blowing operation is much more simple and considerably less trouble. For this work, where large quantities of acids are handled, it is customary to have what is known as a blow-egg or tank of steel or cast iron below the level of all the other tanks and lines in the installation.
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Then by gravity the liquid to be drawn can be dropped into the egg, and, under pressure, depending on the distance and height to be delivered, i t can be blown any reasonable distance. For delivery t o any distance, it is more advisable t o elevate almost vertically and then flow by gravity. With this system, of course, the tank must be equipped with the necessary air inlet, and liquid inlet and outlet as well as a vent. Pump-In a good many cases gravity or air pressure may be impracticable or even impossible, and hence you must use a pump of some kind. Here again, as I stated above, the discovery and use of high silica irons has helped t o solve many knotty problems. Special pumps, for example, are now pumping materials for which it has always been necessary to use stoneware. Taken for granted that it is necessary to pump the liquid, you must then decide, shall it be a centrifugal or a regular steam pump? The answer t o this depends entirely on the local conditions. We find in our work t h a t the centrifugal has advantages in one place, while the steam cylinder pump has them in another, and as a result we have both types well represented. Injector a n d Air Lift are merely mentioned a t this time. (4) TYPE OF VALVE TO BE usED-The question Of valves in a n y commercial installation sounds very simple and as a matter of fact is so in most cases; however, in acid work, it is a source of considerable anxiety and worry if you are concerned with exact weights and inventories. We have found that in certain cases where a certain make of valve might stand up very well against the liquid itself, on the other hand, if it were in contact with the fumes it would soon lose its effectiveness. Here once again high silica iron has shown fine results. Plhg-cocks of this material we have had in use in certain very bad positions for 3 or 4 years, with no apparent wear, while previously we would replace the ordinary valve every 3 or 4 weeks. (5) i x E A s t x I N G OR wEIGHmG-In any well managed plant i t is, of course, of the utmost importance that all liquids used in the various processes shall be accurately weighed and accounted for. As stated above, a n effective valve is absolutely essential for this. We weigh practically all our acids as used, and for this purpose have a tank located right on the scale platform. For some work, we rely entirely on measurement in the tank and for this have the tanks fitted up with sight glasses. For this, of course, the temperature should not vary greatly or there will be a large error introduced.
CURRENT INDUSTRIAL NEWS HARDENING OF WATER-GLASS PAINTS The quickened hardening of water-glass paints into a n impervious layer is the subject of a lately reported German patent. The paints are mixed with a n alkali bicarbonate or other material yielding carbon dioxide on heating and are heated just before use. The finely divided silicic acid uniformly separated out gives increased viscosity t o the mixture. The covering properties are not affected and, within twelve hours after application the paint forms a firm waterproof and weatherproof coating.-A. MACMILLAN. JAPANESE COPPER ORE The output of copper ore in Japan in 1916 amounted t o 111,562 tons as compared with 83,017 tons in 191j and 78,700 tons in 1914, while exports amounted t o 57,402 tons in 1916 as against 56,528 tons in 1915, and 43,305 tons in 1914. Russia now buys most of Japan’s copper ore, her purchases amounting t o 60 per cent of the total exports. The I-nited Kingdom takes 20 per cent, while France, the United States and India share the balance, but their dealings are not large.-hl.
SPITZBERGEN COALFIELDS Hopes had been expressed in these times of international coal famine, says Engineering, 103 (1917). 590, t h a t the Spitzbergen coal deposits might help a t least the Scandinavian countries, but matters do not seem t o progress very favorably. The contemplated Xorwegian company for the exploitation of the so-called Svalbard coal fields a t Advent Bay and Green Harbour with a capital of $850,000 has not materialized, the funds not being fully subscribed and money not being found by other methods. The scheme, principally started by Xorwegian shipowners, has been abandoned in the original shape, but a company will be formed to protect the rights in question. It remains t o be seen whether the Swedes will be more successful. The Swedish expedition for coal mining is about to start and comprises about I j o men, of whom IOO are to winter there. For the present year only a few thousand tons of coal are expected t o be worked, but a great deal of preparatory work has to be done before rational coal mining on a large scale can commence.
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