The Intellectual Basis of Specialization - American Chemical Society

1. The Intellectual Basis of Specialization. Geochemistry in America, 1890-1915. JOHN W. ... 0097-6156/83/0228-0001 $06.00/0 ... Indeed, much of what ...
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1 The Intellectual Basis of Specialization Geochemistry in America, 1890-1915

Downloaded by 80.82.77.83 on May 9, 2018 | https://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: August 23, 1984 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1984-0228.ch001

JOHN W. SERVOS Princeton University, Program in History of Science, Princeton, NJ 08544

Geochemistry was one of several new hybrid specialties to flourish in the United States in the twentieth century. It had its origins when geologists began to apply the tools of physical chemistry to the problems of petro­ genesis and metamorphism. This paper treats the reasons why America proved a congenial site for the development of this work. Espe­ cially important was the presence in the United States of vigorous communities of petrographers and physical chemists who perceived a fit between the problems of one field and the techniques of the other and who were able to mold institutions within which the specialty might grow. The first of these institutions were established within the U.S. Geological Survey and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Only well after 1900, when geochemists discovered unanticipated industrial applications of their knowledge, did the field find a secure place in American universities. The y e a r s a r o u n d t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y a r e r e p l e t e w i t h e x a m p l e s o f new s c i e n t i f i c s p e c i a l t i e s e m e r g i n g f r o m s i n g l e p a r e n t f i e l d s o r , more o f t e n , f r o m t h e j u n c t i o n o f two o r more e s t a b l i s h e d s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s . A l i s t o f t h e s e new s p e c i a l t i e s m i g h t i n c l u d e p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y , a s t r o p h y s i c s , b i o c h e m i s t r y , and g e n e t i c s ; and t h e r o s t e r c o u l d be e a s i l y e x t e n d e d . A l t h o u g h most h a d t h e i r o r i g i n s i n E u r o p e , they found e s p e c i a l l y c o n g e n i a l c l i m a t e s f o r e x p a n s i o n i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n d e e d , i t was i n t h e s e new f i e l d s r a t h e r than i n o l d e r s p e c i a l t i e s , such as o r g a n i c chemistry, t h a t A m e r i c a n s c i e n t i s t s f i r s t e x c e l l e d . The s t a n d i n g i n t h e i r s p e c i a l t i e s o f a G. N. L e w i s o r Thomas Hunt Morgan well i l l u s t r a t e s this point. They w e r e n o t j u s t i n f l u e n t i a l

0097-6156/83/0228-0001 $06.00/0 © 1983 American Chemical Society

Parascandola and Whorton; Chemistry and Modern Society ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1984.

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t e a c h e r s o r e n t r e p r e n e u r s , t h e y w e r e a l s o s c i e n t i s t s who d e v e l o p e d new t e c h n i q u e s , i d e a s , and l i n e s o f r e s e a r c h w h i c h shaped t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e s i n i m p o r t a n t ways. An A m e r i c a n p r o p e n s i t y f o r a c h i e v e m e n t i n new, i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y f i e l d s may be v i e w e d as p a r t o f t h e l a r g e r p r o c e s s o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n t h a t was s u c h a p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e o f A m e r i can i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e i n the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . S p e c i a l i z a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , i s n o t a phenomenon t h a t has p a s s e d w i t h o u t commentary. I n d e e d , much o f what has b e e n w r i t t e n d u r i n g the past ten years about the h i s t o r y of s c i e n c e i n A m e r i c a d e a l s w i t h i t . Some h i s t o r i a n s h a v e c h a r t e d t h e h i s t o r i e s of i n d i v i d u a l d i s c i p l i n e s ; o t h e r s have t r e a t e d the s i t e s of s p e c i a l i z e d i n q u i r y or the development of markets f o r s p e c i a l i s t s s e r v i c e s ; s t i l l o t h e r s have examined the q u e s t i o n o f how s p e c i a l i z a t i o n c o u l d h a v e p r o c e e d e d so r a p i d l y i n a s o c i e t y s u p p o s e d l y wed t o e g a l i t a r i a n and d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s (1-5). A tendency to i d e n t i f y the American u n i v e r s i t y as t h e c r u c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h i s p r o c e s s i s a common denominator i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . The s i z e , d i v e r s i t y , and f l e x i b i l i t y o f A m e r i c a n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , we a r e t o l d , made r a p i d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n p o s s i b l e — indeed, f o s t e r e d it. A l t h o u g h i n d u s t r i e s and government e x e r t e d a demand f o r men w i t h e s o t e r i c f o r m s o f k n o w l e d g e , i t was t h e u n i v e r s i t y t h a t spawned and n u r t u r e d them. The e l e c t i v e s y s t e m , t h e graduate s c h o o l , the academic department a l l c o n t r i b u t e d to m a k i n g t h e A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t y , i n t h e words o f J o h n Higham, the "matrix of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n " (6-9). I do n o t w i s h t o c h a l l e n g e t h e i d e a t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t y o f t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y was a f l e x i b l e i n s t i t u t i o n . Nor do I w i s h t o r e j e c t t h e c l a i m t h a t i t s e r v e d as t h e m a j o r s i t e of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , r e c o g n i t i o n of the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y as a l o c u s o f t h i s phenomenon s h o u l d n o t c a u s e us t o n e g l e c t o t h e r k i n d s o f i n s t i t u t i o n s i n w h i c h new s p e c i a l t i e s c o a l e s c e d . Nor s h o u l d t h e c u r r e n t e m p h a s i s upon i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s and m a r k e t s f o r s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e b l i n d us t o t h e f a c t t h a t i d e a s t o o p l a y e d a r o l e — t h a t s c i e n t i s t s w i t h i d e a s c o u l d and d i d d e v e l o p new s p e c i a l t i e s d e s p i t e the absence of i n s t i t u t i o n s or s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c n e e d s w e l l s u i t e d t o t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r d i s c i p l i n a r y aims. The d e v e l o p m e n t o f g e o c h e m i s t r y i n A m e r i c a i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s e p o i n t s . I t s h i s t o r y b e a r s some s i m i l a r i t y t o t h e h i s t o r i e s o f o t h e r h y b r i d s p e c i a l t i e s t h a t emerged a r o u n d t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , b u t i n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t ways i t c o n s t i tutes an e x c e p t i o n t o t h e n o r m a l p a t t e r n o f d e v e l o p m e n t . It d i d not t a k e shape i n the u n i v e r s i t y . Rather i t found i t s f i r s t e x p r e s s i o n i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s i n the laboratories o f t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y and t h e C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n of Washington. Only very g r a d u a l l y d i d i t f i n d a p l a c e i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l u m . Nor d i d i t grow i n r e s p o n s e t o

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Parascandola and Whorton; Chemistry and Modern Society ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1984.

Downloaded by 80.82.77.83 on May 9, 2018 | https://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: August 23, 1984 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1984-0228.ch001

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Geochemistry in America

m a r k e t demands. R a t h e r i t a r o s e t h r o u g h t h e e f f o r t s o f a g r o u p o f c h e m i s t s and g e o l o g i s t s t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s t h a t w e r e of g r e a t i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t b u t o f no i m m e d i a t e e c o n o m i c or s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Only g r a d u a l l y d i d e x p e r t s i n the new f i e l d d e v e l o p o r d i s c o v e r a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e i r s p e c i a l k n o w l e d g e and t e c h n i q u e s . D e s p i t e t h e i m p r a c t i c a l i t y o f t h e s u b j e c t and t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s toward i t , American s c i e n t i s t s made f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o g e o c h e m i s t r y i n t h e e a r l y twentieth century. T h i s p a p e r s e e k s t o d e t e r m i n e why. The answer, I m a i n t a i n , i s not to be found i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements o r i n market f o r c e s , but r a t h e r i n the m u l t i p l i c i t y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n s represented i n the United S t a t e s , i n t h e openness o f t h e A m e r i c a n s c i e n t i f i c community t o c r o s s - d i s c i p l i n a r y i n t e l l e c t u a l e x c h a n g e , and i n t h e w i l l i n g n e s s of American s c i e n t i s t s t o undertake experiments in multi-disciplinary collaboration. Before proceeding, i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o d i s c u s s the h i s t o r y o f t h e t e r m ' g e o c h e m i s t r y , f o r i t s m e a n i n g has changed o v e r time. I t , o r i t s German e q u i v a l e n t , a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n c o i n e d i n 1838 b y t h e German n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r , C. F. S c h o n b e i n , t o d e s c r i b e t h e s t u d y o f t h e c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s . During the subsequent f o r t y y e a r s the word appeared s p o r a d i c a l l y i n the g e o l o g i c a l and c h e m i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . O f t e n used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y w i t h the t e r m c h e m i c a l g e o l o g y , i t was g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d t o a m i s c e l l a n y o f t o p i c s i n t h e a r e a s o f r o c k and m i n e r a l a n a l y s i s (10, 11, 12). I f Schonbein or h i s s u c c e s s o r s harbored ambitions f o r t h i s f i e l d , they were d i s a p p o i n t e d , f o r the y e a r s around midc e n t u r y were a low p o i n t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s between geology and c h e m i s t r y . The i n t e r e s t i n t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of i g n e o u s r o c k s t h a t had b e e n s t i r r e d b y t h e w o r k o f W e r n e r , P l a y f a i r , and H a l l had q u i e t e d , and g e o l o g i s t s g e n e r a l l y w e r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h maps, t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l c o l u m n , and t h e h i s t o r y o f l a n d forms. Sedimentary, r a t h e r than igneous, r o c k s were a t the f o c u s o f t h e i r i n q u i r y ; p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e seemed more v a l u a b l e t h a n c h e m i c a l d a t a . Although i t was o c c a s i o n a l l y s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of igneous r o c k s might shed l i g h t on h i s t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s , t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f e r u p t i v e d e p o s i t s r e s i s t e d any s i m p l e analysis. C h e m i s t r y was a v a l u a b l e t o o l f o r t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n e c o n o m i c g e o l o g y , and, where m i n i n g was i m p o r t a n t , t h e g e o l o g i c a l c h e m i s t had ample w o r k . But c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s was o f t e n q u i t e s e p a r a b l e f r o m g e o l o g i c a l f i e l d w o r k . G e o l o g i s t s might c o l l e c t r o c k specimens, note t h e i r abundance, l o c a t i o n , and f i e l d r e l a t i o n s , b u t o f t e n s e n t t h e i r s a m p l e s to t r a i n e d c h e m i s t s f o r s t u d y . In England, students could o b t a i n degrees i n geology w i t h o u t ever having studied c h e m i s t r y , and a l t h o u g h t h e r e were c l o s e r l i n k s b e t w e e n 1

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c h e m i s t r y and g e o l o g y i n Germany a n d S c a n d i n a v i a , t h e c h e m i c a l l i t e r a c y o f g e o l o g i s t s was u s u a l l y n o t v e r y h i g h ( 1 2 , 1 3 ) . The r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n c h e m i s t r y and p e t r o g r a p h y , t h e s c i e n c e o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f r o c k s , was somewhat c l o s e r s i n c e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n was t h o u g h t b y some p e t r o g r a p h e r s t o o f f e r a basis for rational classification. But e a r l y e f f o r t s t o c a t e g o r i z e r o c k s by t h e i r c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n were f r u s t r a t e d as i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i t was i m p o s s i b l e t o f i n d s i m p l e chemical formulas f o r these bodies. Rocks o f d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n f e l l i n t o t h e same c h e m i c a l c a t e g o r i e s , and r o c k s t h a t w e r e c h e m i c a l l y a l i k e w e r e sometimes q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c t u r e , t e x t u r e , and f i e l d r e l a t i o n s . Moreover, t h e s u c c e s s o f H. C l i f t o n Sorby's technique f o r t h e m i c r o s c o p i c study o f t h i n s e c t i o n s o f r o c k s accentuated t h e tendency t o i d e n t i f y r o c k s on t h e b a s i s o f e x t e r n a l r a t h e r t h a n i n t e r n a l p r o p e r t i e s (14, 1 5 ) . Toward t h e end o f t h e c e n t u r y , h o w e v e r , c h e m i s t r y , w h i c h had b e e n t h e a s s a y e r ' s a r t and t h e g e o l o g i s t ' s somewhat n e g l e c t e d h a n d m a i d e n , assumed a new i m p o r t a n c e f o r g e o l o g i s t s and p e t r o g r a p h e r s . I t c e a s e d t o be s i m p l y a r e s e r v o i r o f t e c h n i q u e s t h e g e o l o g i s t c a l l e d upon when i n n e e d o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t r o c k a n d m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d became i n s t e a d t h e b a s i s f o r answering fundamental questions p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e o r i g i n s o f g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and t h e reasons f o r g e o l o g i c a l c h a n g e , q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h e c a u s e s a n d mechanisms o f i g n e o u s p e t r o g e n e s i s , m e t a m o r p h i s m , and s e d i m e n t a t i o n . Chemistry a c q u i r e d a new s t a t u r e n o t b e c a u s e g e o l o g i s t s b e g a n t o a s k new q u e s t i o n s ; e a c h o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s h a d a h o a r y h i s t o r y . R a t h e r i t was b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t l y e n l a r g e d a b i l i t y o f c h e m i s t s to h a n d l e complex g e o l o g i c a l d a t a . I n p a r t i c u l a r , the ideas and t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e new d i s c i p l i n e o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y opened t h e way t o t h e t r e a t m e n t o f i n t r i c a t e d y n a m i c a l q u e s t i o n s t h a t were beyond t h e c a p a c i t y o f i n o r g a n i c o r a n a l y t i c a l c h e m i s t s o f a n e a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n . The j u n c t i o n o f g e o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s and t h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d i d e a s o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y was d e s c r i b e d b y a v a r i e t y o f names a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y : physico-chemical geology, chemical p e t r o l o g y , geochemistry, geophysics. What i s c l e a r , h o w e v e r , i s t h a t d u r i n g t h e 1890s a l o o s e n e t w o r k o f c h e m i s t s and g e o l o g i s t s took form around a s e t o f o l d p r o b l e m s and a s e t o f new o r i m p r o v e d t o o l s . Out of t h i s n e t w o r k t h e r e a r o s e t h e f i r s t r e c o g n i z a b l y modern w o r k s on g e o c h e m i s t r y ( 1 1 , 1 6 - 1 9 ) . W i t h t h e b e n e f i t o f h i n d s i g h t , i t seems o b v i o u s t h a t g e o l o g y s h o u l d h a v e become a f i e l d o f a p p l i c a t i o n f o r p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . As e a r l y a s 1851, R o b e r t Bunsen h a d o b s e r v e d t h a t magmas w e r e s o l u t i o n s and m i g h t be t r e a t e d by t h e same p r i n c i p l e s t h a t g o v e r n e d t h e b e h a v i o r o f aqueous s o l u t i o n s . Minerals did not s i m p l y c r y s t a l l i z e o u t o f magmas i n t h e r e v e r s e o r d e r o f t h e i r f u s i b i l i t i e s , b u t m i g h t show t h e same c o m p l e x s o l u b i l i t y p a t t e r n s as were e x h i b i t e d by m i x t u r e s o f s a l t s i n w a t e r (20, 2 1 ) .

Parascandola and Whorton; Chemistry and Modern Society ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1984.

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I n 1857, t h e F r e n c h p e t r o g r a p h e r , J . D u r o c h e r , drew a n o t h e r a n a l o g y when h e n o t e d s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n magmas and a l l o y s (22). I f one c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s g o v e r n i n g t h e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f m e t a l l i c melts, which could y i e l d a l l o y s w i t h d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s depending on the r a t e and c o n d i t i o n s o f c o o l i n g , m i g h t n o t t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e extended t o rock melts? B o t h Bunsen and D u r o c h e r w e r e s e e k i n g t o comprehend t h e i n a c c e s s i b l e and c o m p l e x i n t e r m s o f t h e f a m i l i a r and s i m p l e r . T h e i r s u g g e s t i o n s , h o w e v e r , b o r e no d i r e c t f r u i t , f o r a l t h o u g h aqueous s o l u t i o n s and a l l o y s m i g h t be s i m p l e r t h a n magmas, t h e y were b u t l i t t l e u n d e r s t o o d b y chemists. The r e m a r k a b l e s e r i e s o f c o n c e p t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e 1880s t h a t w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e g e n e s i s o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y s u p p l i e d a b a s i s f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t Bunsen and D u r o c h e r l a c k e d ( 2 3 ) . V a n ' t H o f f ' s l a w o f o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e , A r r h e n i u s ' s t h e o r y o f e l e c t r o l y t i c d i s s o c i a t i o n , and t h e s u b s e q u e n t w o r k o f N e r n s t , O s t w a l d , and t h e i r s t u d e n t s i l l u m i n a t e d i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e b e h a v i o r and p r o p e r t i e s o f solutions. G i b b s ' s p h a s e r u l e , f i r s t a p p r e c i a t e d and u s e d by Roozeboom, O s t w a l d , L e C h a t e l i e r , and v a n ' t H o f f i n t h e l a t e 1880s, f u r n i s h e d s c i e n t i s t s w i t h a v a l u a b l e guide t o the study o f heterogeneous e q u i l i b r i a . A l t h o u g h the laws o f i d e a l s o l u t i o n w e r e v a l i d o n l y f o r e x t r e m e l y d i l u t e aqueous s o l u t i o n s — s l i g h t l y p o l l u t e d w a t e r , a s one c h e m i s t p h r a s e d i t — and a l t h o u g h t h e p h a s e r u l e was a p p l i e d a t f i r s t o n l y t o v e r y s i m p l e s y s t e m s , p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e new p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y c o n f i d e n t l y a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e i r d i s c o v e r i e s would serve as a b a s i s f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c h e m i s t r y and f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f new l i n k s b e t w e e n c h e m i s t r y and o t h e r s c i e n c e s (24). P h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y , they s u g g e s t e d , would be a donor s c i e n c e , c a p a b l e o f s t i m u l a t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t i n , and a n s w e r i n g the needs o f , n e i g h b o r i n g d i s c i p l i n e s . I t was s u c h , t h e y a r g u e d , b e c a u s e s o l u t i o n s w e r e t h e s i t e s o f most c h e m i c a l c h a n g e s . The t e s t s o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l c h e m i s t w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n t h e wet way, t h e phenomena o f l i f e t o o k p l a c e i n s o l u t i o n , s o l u t i o n s were t h e medium o f many i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s , and l a s t but not l e a s t , s o l u t i o n s were p o w e r f u l agents o f g e o l o g i c a l change. I n s o f a r a s t h e f o u n d e r s o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y had r e v o l u t i o n i z e d the c h e m i s t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s o l u t i o n s , t h e y had a l s o t r a n s f o r m e d t h e b a s i s f o r t h e g e o l o g i s t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c h e m i s t r y o f r o c k f o r m a t i o n and a l t e r a t i o n ( 2 5 , 26, 2 7 ) . 1

1

P h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s w e r e t h e m s e l v e s among t h e f i r s t t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e g e o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i r i d e a s and t o a p p l y t h e i r methods t o g e o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s . Both van't Hoff and A r r h e n i u s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t u r n e d t o w a r d g e o l o g i c a l i s s u e s i n t h e 1890s (25^, 2 8 ) . T h a t p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s s h o u l d h a v e e x p r e s s e d a l i v e l y i n t e r e s t i n g e o l o g i c a l phenomena i s n o t surprising. They w e r e a n x i o u s t o d e v e l o p s u c h a p p l i c a t i o n s

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b o t h as a means o f l e g i t i m a t i n g t h e i r i d e a s and o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g the r a t h e r f r a g i l e i n s t i t u t i o n a l supports of t h e i r s p e c i a l t y . But a t r a n s m i s s i o n o f i d e a s depended as much upon t h e r e c e p t i v i t y o f g e o l o g i s t s as on t h e a s s e r t i v e n e s s o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s , and g e o l o g i s t s g e n e r a l l y w e r e i l l - p r e p a r e d t o f o l l o w , n e v e r m i n d make u s e o f , r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c h e m i s t r y . Moreover, t h e r e was a g r e a t d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f t h e new p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y and t h e n e e d s o f g e o l o g i s t s . Magmas, f o r e x a m p l e , w e r e f a r more c o m p l e x t h a n d i l u t e aqueous s o l u t i o n s o r a l l o y s , and t h e y w e r e i n a c c e s s i b l e t o d i r e c t s t u d y . Whereas the chemist or m e t a l l u r g i s t c o u l d check h i s c o n c l u s i o n s a g a i n s t the behavior of s o l u t i o n s or a l l o y s i n the l a b o r a t o r y , the g e o l o g i s t d i d not possess f a c i l i t i e s i n which the n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s o f r o c k f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be d u p l i c a t e d . H i s g i v e n s w e r e t h e r o c k s t h e m s e l v e s , t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t s o f magmatic cooling. T h e i r g e n e s i s was open t o many i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . The t r a n s m i s s i o n o f i d e a s and methods f r o m p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y t o g e o l o g y was t h e r e f o r e a s l o w and h a l t i n g p r o c e s s , and t h e p a t h and p a c e o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n v a r i e d a g r e a t d e a l from country t o c o u n t r y . The g e o l o g i s t s o f F r a n c e and England were r a t h e r slow t o adopt a p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l approach. I n s t e a d , t h e f i r s t g e o l o g i s t s t o make u s e o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y w e r e l o c a t e d i n c o u n t r i e s w i t h i n t h e o r b i t o f German s c i e n c e : Norway ( J . H. L. V o g t ) , R u s s i a (A. L a g o r i o , F. Y. L o e w i n s o n L e s s i n g ) , A u s t r i a (C. A. S. D o e l t e r ) , and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( J . P. I d d i n g s , C. R. Van H i s e , A. L. Day, N. L. Bowen) ( 2 9 ) . Three f a c t o r s appear to have been c r u c i a l i n l e a d i n g t o t h i s p a t t e r n : t h e p r e s e n c e o f a v i g o r o u s group o f p e t r o g r a p h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and g e n e s i s o f i g n e o u s r o c k s ; t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a community o f c h e m i s t s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the r e c e n t developments i n s o l u t i o n theory and c h e m i c a l t h e r m o d y n a m i c s ; and t h e e x i s t e n c e o r c r e a t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h g e o l o g i s t s and c h e m i s t s m i g h t m i x and c o l l a b o r a t e . Where t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e p r e s e n t , geochemical research f l o u r i s h e d at the t u r n of the century; w h e r e one o r a n o t h e r o f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s was a b s e n t , a geoc h e m i c a l t r a d i t i o n was s l o w t o d e v e l o p . The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e A m e r i c a n c a s e . By t h e m i d - 1 8 9 0 s , a l a r g e and s t i l l g r o w i n g c a d r e o f p e t r o g r a p h e r s was a c t i v e i n A m e r i c a . Some had l e a r n e d t h e i r s c i e n c e a t home i n t h e f i e l d , b u t a t t h e c o r e o f t h i s g r o u p were s c i e n t i s t s who had a c q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , t e x t u r e , and c o m p o s i t i o n o f r o c k s i n Germany. B e g i n n i n g i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , a s t r e a m o f A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s had gone t o H e i d e l b e r g , L e i p z i g , and o t h e r German u n i v e r s i t i e s t o s t u d y u n d e r F e r d i n a n d Z i r k e l , H a r r y R o s e n b u s c h , and o t h e r German m a s t e r s o f pétrographie t e c h n i q u e s . A r o s t e r o f t h e more n o t a b l e of these Americans would i n c l u d e Joseph Paxton Iddings, C h a r l e s Whitman C r o s s , H e n r y S. W a s h i n g t o n , L o u i s V. P i r s s o n , G. H. W i l l i a m s , J . E. W o l f f , F. Ε. W r i g h t , and R. A. D a l y . Although

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1.

SERVOS

Geochemistry in America

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most went i n o r d e r t o l e a r n t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and t h i n s e c t i o n a n a l y s i s , many t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e i r s t a y i n Germany t o a t t e n d l e c t u r e s o n c h e m i s t r y a s w e l l ( 3 0 - 3 3 ) . A f t e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s many b e g a n t h e i r c a r e e r s a t t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . There, t h e i r primary t a s k was t o i d e n t i f y and map d i s t r i c t s w i t h e c o n o m i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g m i n e r a l s , b u t they a l s o had t h e freedom t o s t u d y b r o a d e r q u e s t i o n s . The r o c k s o f t h e e r u p t i v e d i s t r i c t s o f the American west, f o r i n s t a n c e , were a n e x c e l l e n t s i t e f o r s t u d y o f t h e o r i g i n s and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f i g n e o u s r o c k s , and t h e a n c i e n t r o c k s o f t h e L a k e S u p e r i o r r e g i o n o f f e r e d t e m p t i n g m a t e r i a l s f o r w o r k o n p r o c e s s e s o f metamorphism and o r e f o r m a t i o n . By t h e 1890s s e v e r a l A m e r i c a n p e t r o g r a p h e r s had begun t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s and t o make s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n t h e h i s t o r y and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f r o c k s . F o r e i g n s t u d y among A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s o f p e t r o g r a p h y r e a c h e d a peak i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 9 0 s , a n d i t was a t t h i s t i m e t h a t the f i r s t Americans began t o r e t u r n from Europe w i t h advanced t r a i n i n g i n another s p e c i a l t y — p h y s i c a l chemistry. Between 1889 and 1 9 0 5 , o v e r f o r t y A m e r i c a n s w o r k e d i n W i l h e l m O s t w a l d ' s l a b o r a t o r y a t L e i p z i g ; t h e y formed t h e n u c l e u s o f a v i g o r o u s community o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Like their European t e a c h e r s , t h e s e p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s were a n x i o u s t o w i n an a u d i e n c e f o r t h e i r i d e a s and t o d e v e l o p i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r their specialty. D u r i n g t h e 1890s, they t r a n s l a t e d European t e x t s , e s t a b l i s h e d g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m s , and l a u n c h e d a j o u r n a l devoted t o t h e i r s u b j e c t . They a l s o s o u g h t t o a d a p t t h e i r k n o w l e d g e t o t h e needs o f o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t s — a t f i r s t b y w r i t i n g t e x t s on q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s and g e n e r a l c h e m i s t r y from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e i o n i c t h e o r y , and l a t e r b y a p p l y i n g s o l u t i o n t h e o r y and c h e m i c a l t h e r m o d y n a m i c s t o p r o b l e m s i n a g r i c u l t u r e , e n g i n e e r i n g , and m e d i c i n e . During the n i n e t i e s , they succeeded i n b r i n g i n g t h e i r s u b j e c t t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e b r o a d e r s c i e n t i f i c community and i n e s t a b l i s h i n g s e t t i n g s i n which t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s might prosper ( 2 7 ) . S h o r t l y a f t e r 1890, l i a s o n s b e g a n t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e s e two s p e c i a l t i e s . The f i r s t A m e r i c a n c o n t a c t s w e r e n o t made i n e m u l a t i o n o f d e v e l o p m e n t s a b r o a d ; r a t h e r t h e y w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f , and r o u g h l y s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h , s i m i l a r c o n t a c t s t h e n b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n p e t r o g r a p h e r s and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s i n Norway, A u s t r i a , and R u s s i a . I t was n o t t h e u n i v e r s i t y that served as the p r i n c i p a l context o f i n t e l l e c t u a l commerce, b u t r a t h e r t h e o f f i c e s a n d l a b o r a t o r i e s o f t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey. A n d i t was i n t h e S u r v e y and i n a n i n s t i t u t i o n b u i l t by s c i e n t i s t s from t h a t agency — t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y o f t h e C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n o f W a s h i n g t o n — t h a t t h e new p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l geology f l o u r i s h e d . Two p e t r o g r a p h e r s , J o s e p h P a x t o n I d d i n g s (1857-1920) a n d C h a r l e s R. V a n H i s e (1857-1918) w e r e t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l o f t h e

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i n t e l l e c t u a l b r o k e r s who e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s e c o n t a c t s i n A m e r i c a . They w e r e n o t e x t r e m e l y o r i g i n a l s c i e n t i s t s n o r w e r e t h e y l a b o r a t o r y men w i t h t r a i n i n g i n p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . Rather t h e y w e r e s y n t h e s i z e r s who c a s t t h e i r n e t s w i d e and who came t o b e l i e v e , t h r o u g h w o r k i n f i e l d and l i b r a r y , t h a t p h y s i c a l chemists working i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h g e o l o g i s t s might develop a n s w e r s t o t h e p e r p l e x i n g p r o b l e m s o f r o c k f o r m a t i o n and metamorphism. I d d i n g s appears to have been the f i r s t American g e o l o g i s t to draw a t t e n t i o n t o t h e g e o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s o l u t i o n theory. He was one o f t h e many A m e r i c a n p e t r o g r a p h e r s who had s t u d i e d u n d e r R o s e n b u s c h and who had t h e n j o i n e d t h e young U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey. D u r i n g t h e 1 8 8 0 s , I d d i n g s s p e n t h i s summers i n the f i e l d , amidst the v o l c a n i c r o c k s of Y e l l o w s t o n e P a r k , and h i s w i n t e r s i n W a s h i n g t o n , w h e r e he s t r u c k up a f r i e n d s h i p w i t h F. W. C l a r k e , t h e c h i e f c h e m i s t o f t h e S u r v e y and a man w i t h w i d e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e new p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . Both of these e x p e r i e n c e s proved i m p o r t a n t f o r I d d i n g s (30, 34). H i s f i e l d w o r k gave I d d i n g s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h e r u p t i v e r o c k s t h a t e x h i b i t e d a f a i r l y smooth and c o n t i n u o u s g r a d a t i o n o f m i n e r a l and c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n ; t h e d e p o s i t s a p p e a r e d t o r e f l e c t t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l s e q u e n c e o f f o r m a t i o n . M i n e r a l o g i c a l and c h e m i c a l a n a l y s e s of samples from these beds, t o g e t h e r w i t h r e p o r t s of s i m i l a r d e p o s i t s elsewhere, l e d Iddings t o suggest t h a t t h e i g n e o u s r o c k s o f any r e g i o n a r e so i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d by m i n e r a l o g i c a l and c h e m i c a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t t h e y must h a v e o r i g i n a t e d i n a common s o u r c e — some s i n g l e magma t h a t c o u l d g i v e r i s e t o v a r i o u s k i n d s of igneous r o c k s through a process of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . S e v e r a l E u r o p e a n p e t r o g r a p h e r s had a l r e a d y n o t e d t e x t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f d i s c r e t e pétrographie p r o v i n c e s , and o t h e r s had s u g g e s t e d t h a t i g n e o u s r o c k s m i g h t be d e r i v e d f r o m a s i n g l e magma t h r o u g h differentiation. I d d i n g s s c o n t r i b u t i o n was t o s t r e s s t h e c h e m i c a l r e l a t e d n e s s of rocks i n p a r t i c u l a r p r o v i n c e s — their chemical consanguinity (16). I d d i n g s s w o r k l e d d i r e c t l y t o two f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s : What was t h e p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l s t a t e o f m o l t e n magmas? and by what p r o c e s s c o u l d a w i d e v a r i e t y o f d i s t i n c t b u t c h e m i c a l l y r e l a t e d r o c k s be d e r i v e d f r o m a s i n g l e , homogeneous s o u r c e ? It was h e r e t h a t p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y became i m p o r t a n t . In h i s f i r s t p a p e r on t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f i g n e o u s r o c k s , w r i t t e n i n 1889, I d d i n g s had b e e n u n a b l e t o go b e y o n d h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s when i t came t o t h e s e p r o b l e m s . He t r e a t e d magmas as s a t u r a t e d s o l u t i o n s of s i l i c a t e molecules from which m i n e r a l s p e c i e s c r y s t a l l i z e d a s t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e c o n d i t i o n s c h a n g e d . As t o t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e compounds i n s o l u t i o n and t h e d e t a i l s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n magmas, h e c o n f e s s e d i g n o r a n c e ( 3 5 ) . I n h i s n e x t p a p e r on t h e s u b j e c t , w r i t t e n i n 1892, I d d i n g s a d o p t e d a f a r more c o n f i d e n t t o n e . Whereas he had e a r l i e r b e e n w i t h o u t s u g g e s t i o n s as t o how t o p r o c e e d , i n t h i s p a p e r he 1

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a d v a n c e d a new h y p o t h e s i s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f s u b s t a n c e s i n magmas and p o s i t e d a mechanism w h e r e b y c h e m i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n might occur. I n l a r g e p a r t t h i s new c o n f i d e n c e a p p e a r s t o h a v e been d e r i v e d f r o m h i s d i s c o v e r y o f t h e p a p e r s o f v a n t H o f f and A r r h e n i u s on s o l u t i o n t h e o r y . H i s a t t e n t i o n was drawn t o A r r h e n i u s ' s w o r k , he t e l l s h i s r e a d e r , through t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f o f h i s c o l l e a g u e a t t h e S u r v e y , F. W. C l a r k e ( 3 6 ) . I d d i n g s h a d a l r e a d y c o n c l u d e d t h a t i d e n t i c a l magmas c o u l d p r o d u c e v e r y d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l s d e p e n d i n g upon t h e c o n d i t i o n s of c o o l i n g . A n a l y s e s o f r o c k s drawn f r o m two l o c a t i o n s i n t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e r e g i o n had shown t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e s e s a m p l e s w e r e c h e m i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l they d i f f e r e d markedly i n m i n e r a l composition. I d d i n g s had even t e n t a t i v e l y suggested t h a t m i n e r a l s might n o t r e t a i n t h e i r m o l e c u l a r i n t e g r i t y i n t h e molten s t a t e , b u t m i g h t decompose i n t o s i m p l e r u n i t s w h i c h c o u l d s h i f t a b o u t i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f one a n o t h e r and e n t e r i n t o s e v e r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , d e p e n d i n g upon t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g d u r i n g c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n (37). A r r h e n i u s s theory o f e l e c t r o l y t i c d i s s o c i a t i o n provided Iddings w i t h a powerful support f o r t h i s i d e a i n t h a t i t i n d i c a t e d t h a t magmas m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s belonging t o a l a r g e c l a s s o f s o l u t i o n s i n which molecules o f s o l u t e d i s s o c i a t e d i n t o i o n s . Iddings concluded that the simpler u n i t s i n magmas were p r o b a b l y o x i d e s o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s (36). Although t h i s c o n c l u s i o n proved premature, I d d i n g s s .work was an i m p o r t a n t a d v a n c e b e c a u s e i t b o t h p u t new c o n t e n t i n t o B u n s e n s o l d s u g g e s t i o n t h a t magmas w e r e s o l u t i o n s and went some way t o w a r d e x p l a i n i n g how d i f f e r e n t r o c k s c o u l d a r i s e f r o m one magma. A s t o t h e mechanism o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , I d d i n g s once a g a i n drew upon t h e work o f a p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t , i n t h i s c a s e , v a n t Hoff. Van't H o f f s theory o f osmotic pressure p r o v i d e d a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r an e m p i r i c a l p r i n c i p l e d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e e a r l y 1880s b y t h e p h y s i c i s t , C. S o r e t : i n a s o l u t i o n i n which there i s a temperature g r a d i e n t , molecules o f t h e s o l u t e w i l l t e n d t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n t h e c o o l e r p o r t i o n . T h i s mechanism o f m o l e c u l a r d i f f u s i o n , I d d i n g s s u g g e s t e d , might be s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n what h e t o o k t o be e v i d e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n magmas p r i o r t o c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n ( 3 8 ) . I d d i n g s c o n c l u d e d h i s p a p e r w i t h a n admonishment: The c o m p l e x i t i e s o f a compound s o l u t i o n t h a t e x i s t s o n l y a t e x t r e m e l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s and e x p e r i e n c e s t h e p r e s s u r e s t o w h i c h r o c k magmas h a v e u n d o u b t e d l y been s u b j e c t e d may l o n g r e m a i n b e y o n d t h e r e a c h o f direct investigation. S t i l l t h e steady advance o f experimental physics o f f e r s great p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n this direction. U n t i l the establishment o f d e f i n i t e k n o w l e d g e c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f m o l t e n magmas we must p r o c e e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f a n a l o g y b y a p p l y i n g t o them s u c h l a w s a s may b e f o u n d a p p l i c a b l e t o s o l u t i o n s t h a t e x i s t a t lower temperatures and pressures (39).

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One c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n o f I d d i n g s * s p a p e r was t h a t g e o l o g i s t s s h o u l d pay h e e d t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e b o r d e r l a n d b e t w e e n c h e m i s t r y and p h y s i c s . They s h o u l d make use o f t h e t h e o r y o f s o l u t i o n , and t h e y s h o u l d s e e k t o f o s t e r r e s e a r c h t h a t w o u l d o b v i a t e t h e need t o r e a s o n a b o u t magmas by a n a l o g y — that i s , r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g the d i r e c t study of m o l t e n s i l i c a t e s . Not l o n g a f t e r t h i s p a p e r was w r i t t e n , I d d i n g s s c o l l e a g u e , C h a r l e s R. Van H i s e , came t o t h e same c o n c l u s i o n s by a somewhat d i f f e r e n t route. A l t h o u g h Van H i s e was an e x a c t c o n t e m p o r a r y o f I d d i n g s , h i s e d u c a t i o n was, i n most r e s p e c t s , i n f e r i o r t o t h a t o f h i s colleague. Van H i s e d i d n o t s t u d y i n Germany; h i s f o r m a l t r a i n i n g was as a m e c h a n i c a l e n g i n e e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin. He l e a r n e d h i s g e o l o g y i n t h e f i e l d , f i r s t as an a s s i s t a n t i n t h e s t a t e s u r v e y o f W i s c o n s i n , w h e r e he became a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e use o f t h e m i c r o s c o p e , and l a t e r as a g e o l o g i s t and d i v i s i o n c h i e f i n t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . A l t h o u g h Van H i s e t a u g h t a t h i s a l m a m a t e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1880s and 1 8 9 0 s , and l a t e r became i t s p r e s i d e n t , h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l l i f e was o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h e S u r v e y , where h i s p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was t o s t u d y t h e i r o n and c o p p e r d i s t r i c t s o f t h e L a k e S u p e r i o r r e g i o n (40, 41). A l e s s e r i n t e l l e c t might have been s a t i s f i e d to prepare u s e f u l but e s s e n t i a l l y d e s c r i p t i v e r e p o r t s on t h e t o p o g r a p h y and m i n e r a l s o f t h e a r e a , b u t Van H i s e had u n u s u a l d i s c i p l i n e and t e n a c i t y . H i s d e s c r i p t i v e work l e d h i m , d u r i n g the e a r l y 1890s, t o study the causes of o r e d e p o s i t i o n and t h e l a r g e r s u b j e c t o f metamorphism. F r u s t r a t e d by h i s i n a d e q u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n i n t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s , Van H i s e embarked on an a m b i t i o u s c a m p a i g n t o e d u c a t e h i m s e l f i n t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y . I n 1902, he w r o t e : d u r i n g the past f i v e y e a r s , i n order t o handle the p r o b l e m s o f g e o l o g y b e f o r e me, I h a v e s p e n t more t i m e i n t r y i n g t o remedy my d e f e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e o f p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y . . . t h a n I h a v e s p e n t upon c u r r e n t p a p e r s i n g e o l o g y ; and w i t h , I b e l i e v e , much more p r o f i t t o my w o r k ( 4 2 ) . Van H i s e d i d n o t engage i n t h i s s t u d y a l o n e . In the m i d - n i n e t i e s , u s i n g S u r v e y f u n d s , he h i r e d a young p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t , A. T. L i n c o l n , t o a s s i s t him w i t h c a l c u l a t i o n s and, i t a p p e a r s , t o t u t o r h i m i n t h e new l i t e r a t u r e (44, 4 5 ) . The f r u i t s o f t h e s e l a b o r s a p p e a r e d i n a s e r i e s o f p a p e r s d u r i n g t h e l a t e 1890s and i n h i s m a s s i v e T r e a t i s e on M e t a m o r p h i s m o f 1904, an e n c y c l o p e d i c w o r k t h a t some o f h i s c o l l e a g u e s t o o k t o be t h e l a s t w o r d on t h e s u b j e c t (45, 46).

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Van H i s e s t r e a t m e n t o f metamorphism a r o s e f r o m t h e f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t young r o c k s a r e o f t e n marked by numerous f i s s u r e s and j o i n t s w h e r e a s o l d e r r o c k s show many s i g n s o f f o l d i n g and f l e x u r e b u t few o f f r a c t u r e . He a s c r i b e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h d e f o r m a t i o n o c c u r r e d . Young r o c l s w e r e d e f o r m e d n e a r t h e s u r f a c e i n what Van H i s e c a l l e d a zone o f

Parascandola and Whorton; Chemistry and Modern Society ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1984.

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fracture. Here s t r e s s might r e s u l t i n r u p t u r e , but incumbent p r e s s u r e was i n s u f f i c i e n t t o c a u s e f i s s u r e s , o n c e o p e n e d , t o b e closed. A n c i e n t r o c k s were deformed beneath t h i s zone, i n a s e c o n d r e g i o n w h i c h Van H i s e c a l l e d t h e z o n e o f f l o w . Here p r e s s u r e was g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s t r e n g t h o f any r o c k , and h e n c e f i s s u r e s were i m p o s s i b l e . D e f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s lower r e g i o n r e s u l t e d from the p l a s t i c f l o w of r o c k s . A l t h o u g h Van H i s e a t t r i b u t e d t h e g r o s s d e f o r m a t i o n o f r o c k s t o p h y s i c a l c a u s e s , h e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i r a l t e r a t i o n was a chemical, o r p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l , problem. Thus, he m a i n t a i n e d t h a t a d i f f e r e n t set o f chemical r e a c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d the a l t e r a t i o n o f r o c k s i n each zone. I n t h e zone o f f r a c t u r e , r e a c t i o n s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r r e d w i t h t h e e x p a n s i o n o f v o l u m e and t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f heat: o x i d a t i o n , c a r b o n a t i o n , and h y d r a t i o n . I n the lower zone, these r e a c t i o n s were r e v e r s e d as p r e s s u r e r a t h e r t h a n t e m p e r a t u r e became t h e f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g c h e m i c a l c h a n g e . In both zones, the a l t e r a t i o n of r o c k s took p l a c e c h i e f l y through t h e a g e n c y o f w a t e r and t h e m i n e r a l i z e r s t h a t w a t e r c a r r i e d i n solution. I n t h e zone o f f r a c t u r e , m e t e o r i c w a t e r s c i r c u l a t e d t h r o u g h f i s s u r e s , d i s s o l v i n g and d e p o s i t i n g m e t a l s and o t h e r m i n e r a l s as a r e s u l t o f v a r i a t i o n i n s o l u b i l i t y a r i s i n g from changes i n t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e . I n the zone o f r o c k f l o w , minute q u a n t i t i e s o f trapped water acted to m a i n t a i n rocks i n a p l a s t i c s t a t e t h r o u g h t h e c o n t i n u o u s s o l u t i o n and d e p o s i t i o n o f r o c k m a t e r i a l ( 4 5 , _47, 48, 4 9 ) . f

The names o f v a n t H o f f , A r r h e n i u s , O s t w a l d , and N e r n s t d o t t h e pages o f Van H i s e s w o r k and w i t h good r e a s o n . His unders t a n d i n g o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e o n c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s and o f t h e r o l e s o f w a t e r and i o n i c e q u i l i b r i a i n m e t a m o r p h i c p r o c e s s e s was d e r i v e d l a r g e l y f r o m h i s r e a d i n g o f t h e work of these p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s . "The h a n d l i n g o f t h e p r o b l e m s o f r o c k a l t e r a t i o n w i t h f a i r l y s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s , " he l a t e r w r o t e , "was p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f t h e r i s e o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . Had t h i s s c i e n c e n o t b e e n d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h e p a s t s c o r e o f y e a r s , i t w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e t o h a v e gone f a r upon t h e p r o b l e m . . . . " ( 5 0 ) . Van H i s e t h o u g h t t h a t h e had s k e t c h e d o u t t h e m a j o r f e a t u r e s o f a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f metamorphism. But h e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the d e t a i l s of metamorphic p r o c e s s e s were l a r g e l y unresolved. A b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e phenomena, h e s u g g e s t e d on more t h a n one o c c a s i o n , w o u l d r e q u i r e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y b y s c i e n t i s t s w i t h a s u r e r k n o w l e d g e o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y t h a n he had b e e n a b l e t o a c q u i r e 051, 5 2 ) . 1

D e s p i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e , V a n H i s e and I d d i n g s b o t h came t o t h e v i e w t h a t a c l o s e r c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n c h e m i s t s and g e o l o g i s t s w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y , and b o t h p e r c e i v e d advantages i n c o n d u c t i n g such c o l l a b o r a t i v e work i n t h e laboratory. But f o r m i d a b l e o b s t a c l e s c o n f r o n t e d s u c h a n u n d e r taking. F a c i l i t i e s d i d not e x i s t i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s o r abroad f o r a p p r o x i m a t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h r o c k s w e r e f o r m e d ( 5 3 , 5 4 ) . A d v a n c e s i n t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f producing

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and m e a s u r i n g h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s s u g g e s t e d t h a t s u c h c o n d i t i o n s m i g h t be r e a l i z e d , b u t a l a b o r a t o r y e q u i p p e d t o s t u d y m o l t e n s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n s w o u l d be an e x p e n s i v e a f f a i r , r e q u i r i n g a i r and w a t e r c o m p r e s s o r s , h i g h p r e s s u r e bombs, gas and r e s i s t a n c e f u r n a c e s , c o s t l y e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t , and p r o d i g i o u s q u a n t i t i e s of p l a t i n u m f o r r e a c t i o n v e s s e l s . A f a i r l y l a r g e s t a f f w i t h a v a r i e t y o f s p e c i a l s k i l l s w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o d e s i g n and s u p e r ­ v i s e d e l i c a t e experiments t h a t might run f o r hours or days. And t h e e n t i r e e n t e r p r i s e w o u l d be d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a s s e m b l i n g d a t a w i t h no d e m o n s t r a b l e e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t . A l t h o u g h Van H i s e was a p r o f e s s o r a t W i s c o n s i n and I d d i n g s had j o i n e d t h e s t a f f a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o i n 1892, t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t e i t h e r approached u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s w i t h such a p r o j e c t . Rather t h e y c h o s e t o w o r k t h r o u g h t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . The o p p o r t u n i t y came i n 1900, when t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e Survey, C. D. W a l c o t t , a p p o i n t e d Van H i s e c h a i r m a n o f a c o m m i t t e e t o s t u d y r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e g e o l o g i c a l and c h e m i c a l d i v i s i o n s o f t h e a g e n c y ( 5 5 ) . The S u r v e y had s p o n s o r e d a l i m i t e d p r o g r a m o f g e o p h y s i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e 1880s and e a r l y 1 8 9 0 s , b u t d u r i n g t h e b u d g e t c r i s i s o f 1892, t h i s l a b o r a t o r y had b e e n a b o l i s h e d and t h e S u r v e y had c o n f i n e d i t s e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s t o r o u t i n e c h e m i c a l a n a l y s e s ( 5 6 ) . Now, h o w e v e r , t h e c h e m i s t s i n t h e S u r v e y , t o g e t h e r w i t h some o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y minded g e o l o g i s t s s u c h as Van H i s e , had grown r e s t i v e w i t h t h i s r o l e . The r e p o r t o f Van H i s e s c o m m i t t e e , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , recommended t h a t c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h e S u r v e y be g r e a t l y expanded and t h a t t i m e and e q u i p m e n t be made a v a i l a b l e f o r r e s e a r c h on p r o b l e m s s u c h as had c a u g h t t h e a t t e n t i o n o f Van H i s e and I d d i n g s ( 5 7 ) . 1

L a t e r t h a t y e a r , a l a b o r a t o r y o f c h e m i s t r y and p h y s i c s was o r g a n i z e d w i t h i n t h e S u r v e y u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f G e o r g e F. B e c k e r , a s c i e n t i s t w i t h b o t h l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e (58, 5 9 ) . I t became t h e k e r n e l f r o m w h i c h a g e o c h e m i c a l t r a d i t i o n grew i n A m e r i c a . B e c k e r drew t o g e t h e r an i m p r e s s i v e s t a f f whose members had b a c k g r o u n d s i n s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n e s : the a n a l y t i c a l c h e m i s t s , F. W. C l a r k e and W. F. H i l l e b r a n d ; A r t h u r L o u i s Day, a Y a l e t r a i n e d p h y s i c i s t who had w o r k e d on h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e t h e r m o m e t r y a t t h e P h y s i k a l i s c h - t e c h n i s c h e R e i c h s a n s t a l t ; Ε. T. A l l e n , a young c h e m i s t w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i n t h e new p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y ; F. E. W r i g h t , a p e t r o g r a p h e r f r e s h f r o m R o s e n b u s c h ' s i n s t i t u t e ; J . K. C l e m e n t , a p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t t r a i n e d by N e r n s t a t G o t t i n g e n ; and a n o t h e r p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t , E. S. Shepherd, who had w o r k e d a t C o r n e l l w i t h W. D. B a n c r o f t , t h e l e a d i n g A m e r i c a n e x p e r t on p h a s e e q u i l i b r i a ( 6 0 ) . T h i s m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y s t a f f d e v e l o p e d an a m b i t i o u s i n t e r ­ d i s c i p l i n a r y program f o r the e x p e r i m e n t a l study of r o c k formation. "Our p l a n , " Day and A l l e n w r o t e , was t o s t u d y t h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o r o f some o f t h e s i m p l e r o c k m a k i n g m i n e r a l s by a t r u s t - w o r t h y method, then t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f e q u i l i b r i u m f o r s i m p l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e s e , and t h u s t o r e a c h

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1.

SERVOS

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a sound b a s i s f o r t h e s t u d y o f r o c k f o r m a t i o n o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f r o m magma. E v e n t u a l l y , when we a r e a b l e t o v a r y t h e p r e s s u r e w i t h t h e t e m p e r a t u r e over c o n s i d e r a b l e ranges, our knowledge o f the r o c k - f o r m i n g m i n e r a l s s h o u l d become s u f f i c i e n t t o e n a b l e u s t o c l a s s i f y many o f t h e e a r t h - m a k i n g processes i n t h e i r proper place w i t h the q u a n t i t a t i v e p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s o f the l a b o r a t o r y (61). P a r t o f t h i s p r o g r a m was r e a l i z e d a t t h e S u r v e y . Between 1901 and 1907, t h e c h e m i s t A l l e n , t h e p h y s i c i s t Day, and t h e p e t r o g r a p h e r , I d d i n g s , completed a r i g o r o u s study o f the thermal p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p l a g i o c l a s e f e l d s p a r s , t h e most a b u n d a n t r o c k f o r m i n g m i n e r a l s . T h i s s t u d y was i m p o r t a n t i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . I t was t h e f i r s t f u l l y q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y o f t h e b e h a v i o r o f cooling s i l i c a t e melts. I t s a u t h o r s i n t r o d u c e d many o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s t h a t l a t e r became s t a n d a r d f e a t u r e s i n s u c h r e s e a r c h , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e use o f t h e r m a l r a t h e r t h a n o p t i c a l methods t o d e t e r m i n e m e l t i n g p o i n t s and t h e use o f a r t i f i c i a l m i n e r a l s to g u a r a n t e e p u r i t y . M o r e o v e r , Day and A l l e n e x p l i c i t l y t i e d t h e i r f i n d i n g s t o t h e work o f t h e D u t c h s c h o o l o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s b y s h o w i n g t h a t s o d i u m and c a l c i u m f e l d s p a r s f o r m e d a c o n t i n u o u s s e r i e s o f i s o m o r p h i c c r y s t a l s t h a t f i t Type I o f Roozeboom's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s e q u i l i b r i a . This r e s u l t c a s t l i g h t b o t h on t h e p r o c e s s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n — r u l i n g o u t , f o r example, the i d e a t h a t a l l s i l i c a t e m e l t s behaved as e u t e c t i c s — and i t a l s o a l l o w e d Day and A l l e n t o a c c o u n t f o r one o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f f e l d s p a r c r y s t a l s , t h e i r zonal structure. W a l c o t t c a l l e d t h i s w o r k "one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o g e o l o g i c p h y s i c s e v e r p r i n t e d " ; i t was a model f o r subsequent s t u d i e s o f o t h e r s i l i c a t e systems ( 6 2 ) . The r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m , begun a t t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , f l o u r i s h e d a t a new i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t opened i t s d o o r s i n 1907, t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y o f the Carnegie I n s t i t u t i o n of Washington. S e v e r a l f e a t u r e s o f the h i s t o r y o f t h i s L a b o r a t o r y m e r i t emphasis here. D u r i n g i t s p l a n n i n g s t a g e , w h i c h l a s t e d f r o m 1902 t o 1905, Van H i s e , I d d i n g s , and o t h e r A m e r i c a n p e t r o g r a p h e r s p l a y e d a c r u c i a l r o l e i n g u i d i n g the t r u s t e e s o f the Carnegie I n s t i t u t i o n of W a s h i n g t o n t o w a r d f u n d i n g t h e p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l s t u d y o f r o c k formation. When i t o p e n e d , t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y was b a s e d l a r g e l y upon t h e s t a f f , t e c h n i q u e s , and r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m t h a t had e v o l v e d a t t h e G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . A r t h u r L . Day was i t s f i r s t d i r e c t o r ; A l l e n h i s c h i e f chemist. The p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s , C l e m e n t and S h e p h e r d moved w i t h them, a s d i d t h e p e t r o g r a p h e r , Wright. U s i n g t h i s g r o u p a s a n u c l e u s , Day expanded t h e s t a f f by h i r i n g o t h e r p e t r o g r a p h e r s and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s : students of R o s e n b u s c h and Z i r k e l and f o r m e r p u p i l s o f t h e A m e r i c a n p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s , A. A. Noyes and W. D. B a n c r o f t . F o l l o w i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e s e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e U.S.G.S., t h e s e s c i e n t i s t s went a b o u t t h e t a s k o f m e t h o d i c a l l y c o l l e c t i n g t h e d a t a n e c e s s a r y

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t o c o n s t r u c t phase d i a g r a m s o f two and t h r e e component m i n e r a l systems. The r e s u l t s w e r e o f c a r d i n a l i m p o r t a n c e t o g e o c h e m i s t r y . T h e i r d a t a went a l o n g way t o w a r d f i l l i n g a vacuum i n t h e chemisrJs k n o w l e d g e o f t h e b e h a v i o r o f s i l i c a t e s and s e r v e d as t h e b a s i s f o r N. L. Bowen's t h e o r y o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f i g n e o u s r o c k s , w h i c h , a l t h o u g h n o t u n c h a l l e n g e d , has r e m a i n e d a c o r n e r s t o n e o f t e a c h i n g and r e s e a r c h i n p e t r o l o g y and g e o c h e m i s t r y s i n c e i t was a d v a n c e d i n 1922 ( 5 6 , 6 3 , 6 4 ) . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y as a s t i m u l u s t o w a r d g e o c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h and t r a i n i n g was p e r h a p s as i m p o r t a n t as t h e w o r k c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n i t s w a l l s . When t h e L a b o r a t o r y was f o u n d e d , n e i t h e r i t s p r o m o t e r s n o r i t s s p o n s o r e n v i s i o n e d i t s w o r k as h a v i n g any i m m e d i a t e e c o n o m i c i m p o r t a n c e . Rather i t was e s t a b l i s h e d as a c e n t e r f o r b a s i c r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e p r o c e s s e s of p e t r o g e n e s i s . But s o o n a f t e r t h e L a b o r a t o r y o p e n e d , i t s s t a f f members b e g a n t o make c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f i n d u s t r i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e — s p i n o f f s f r o m t h e i r b a s i c r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m . Day and S h e p h e r d d e v e l o p e d a p r a c t i c a l method f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f q u a r t z g l a s s ; o t h e r s made d i s c o v e r i e s o f v a l u e t o t h e cement and c e r a m i c s i n d u s t r i e s (65-68). D u r i n g W o r l d War I , t h e s t a f f was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e methods t h a t a l l o w e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o become a m a j o r p r o d u c e r o f o p t i c a l g l a s s ( 6 9 ) . A f t e r t h e w a r , many o f t h e s t a f f members f o u n d p o s i t i o n s i n i n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h as managers o f f i r m s s u c h as U.S. S t e e l , C o r n i n g G l a s s , and P i t t s b u r g h P l a t e G l a s s , and r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d i n t h e s t u d y o f m i n e r a l s c o u l d a l s o be a p p l i e d t o g l a s s , c e r a m i c s , cement, and m e t a l s . And as t h e m a r k e t f o r g e o c h e m i s t s knowl e d g e b e g a n t o d e v e l o p , so t o o d i d i n t e r e s t i n t h e f i e l d i n universities. O t h e r s t a f f members l e f t t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y a f t e r W o r l d War I t o t a k e p o s i t i o n s a t H a r v a r d , Y a l e , C h i c a g o , and o t h e r c e n t e r s w h e r e t h e y e s t a b l i s h e d some o f t h e f i r s t g r a d u a t e c o u r s e s and r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e f i e l d s o f p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l p e t r o l o g y and g e o c h e m i s t r y ( 5 6 ) . Nor w e r e t h e s e developments n e g l e c t e d abroad. D u r i n g t h e t e e n s and t w e n t i e s , a stream of f o r e i g n s c i e n t i s t s v i s i t e d Washington to study the methods o f Day, Bowen, and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s . The g e o p h y s i c a l i n s t i t u t e s i n S e n d a i , J a p a n and Z u r i c k , S w i t z e r l a n d w e r e f o u n d e d by s c i e n t i s t s who had f i r s t w o r k e d a t t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y ; v i s i t o r s a l s o came f r o m O s l o , G r o n i n g e n , and Amsterdam ( 7 0 ) . I t w o u l d be no e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y was a t t h e hub o f d e v e l o p m e n t s i n g e o c h e m i s t r y i n t h e early twentieth century. I t was a s i t e where p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s and e a r t h s c i e n t i s t s met, e x c h a n g e d i d e a s , and c a r r i e d t h e p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l study of p e t r o g e n e s i s toward i t s l i m i t s i n a laboratory setting. I t was a l s o a c e n t e r t h a t made v i t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s b o t h t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l community o f g e o c h e m i c a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s and t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a r k e t s f o r their services. By 1915, g e o c h e m i s t r y had become one o f t h o s e f i e l d s i n w h i c h A m e r i c a n s c i e n t i s t s had begun t o assume i n t e r n a t i o n a l 1

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leadership. A m e r i c a n s i n t h i s f i e l d went t o E u r o p e n o t s o much t o l e a r n a s t o t e a c h ; E u r o p e a n s v i s i t e d A m e r i c a n o t s o much t o i n s t r u c t as t o study. The s c i e n c e s upon w h i c h g e o c h e m i s t r y was b a s e d , p e t r o g r a p h y and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y , b o t h had t h e i r o r i g i n s i n E u r o p e , b u t A m e r i c a n s s u c h a s I d d i n g s , Van H i s e , Day, a n d Bowen had b e e n i n t h e v a n g u a r d o f t h o s e who s o u g h t t o b r i n g them together. G e o c h e m i s t r y was n o t , o f c o u r s e , t h e o n l y s c i e n t i f i c s p e c i a l t y i n w h i c h Americans were a c q u i r i n g r e p u t a t i o n s f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n the e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . S i m i l a r advances were b e i n g made i n o t h e r f i e l d s , and e s p e c i a l l y i n new s p e c i a l t i e s : g e n e t i c s , p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y , t h e b i o m e d i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g sciences. I n seeking t o e x p l a i n the success o fAmerican workers i n t h e s e s c i e n c e s i t has become c u s t o m a r y t o l o o k t o w a r d s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s o f the American market o r American u n i v e r s i t y . Market e x p l a n a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y account f o r d i f f e r e n c e s between the r a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t o f s p e c i a l t i e s i n d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s t h r o u g h r e f e r e n c e t o l o c a l demands f o r s k i l l s and s e r v i c e s ( 4 ) . E x p l a n a t i o n s based on the s t r u c t u r e of American i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g s t r e s s t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e d e p a r t m e n t and e l e c t i v e s y s t e m and t h e a d a p t a b i l i t y o f a d e c e n t r a l i z e d and c o m p e t i t i v e n e t w o r k o f u n i v e r s i t i e s ( 6 , ]_> 71) . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e s o r t s o f e x p l a n a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , seems r e l e v a n t i n a c c o u n t i n g f o r why t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s h o u l d h a v e become a l e a d i n g s i t e f o r r e s e a r c h i n g e o c h e m i s t r y a t t h e t u r n of the c e n t u r y . When I d d i n g s and Van H i s e b e g a n i n t h e i r r a t h e r s p e c u l a t i v e way t o a p p l y p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y t o g e o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h e y h e l d no hope o f i m m e d i a t e and d i r e c t p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . When Day embarked o n t h e p l a n n i n g o f t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y , he a p p e a r s t o h a v e e n v i s i o n e d l i t t l e i f any e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t . T h e s e w o r k e r s d i d n o t r e s p o n d t o m a r k e t demands, b u t r a t h e r w e r e m o t i v a t e d by the d e s i r e t o account f o r the o r i g i n s , d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , and a l t e r a t i o n o f r o c k s — q u e s t i o n s t h a t w e r e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e h i s t o r y o f g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f r o c k s , but which c o u l d h a r d l y be claimed as problems o f economic geology. The a p p l i c a t i o n s t h a t l a t e r a r o s e and c o n t r i b u t e d t o w a r d c r e a t i n g a m a r k e t f o r g e o c h e m i s t s skills were l a r g e l y , i f not w h o l l y , u n a n t i c i p a t e d ( 5 6 ) . Nor i s i t p o s s i b l e t o i n v o k e t h e dynamism o f t h e A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t y and t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f i t s v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s as a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e g e n e s i s o f a n A m e r i c a n t r a d i t i o n i n geochemistry. The u n i v e r s i t y was v e r y much o n t h e p e r i p h e r y o f this story. I t s u p p l i e d t r a i n i n g t o p e t r o g r a p h e r s and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s who w o r k e d a t t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y and t h e Geop h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y , b u t c o u r s e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r g e o c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h i n A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s d e v e l o p e d v e r y s l o w l y . When Day s e l e c t e d t h e s t a f f o f t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y , he p i c k e d s c i e n t i s t s w i t h c r e d e n t i a l s i n p e t r o g r a p h y and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y ; t h e y were molded i n t o geochemists a f t e r e n t e r i n g the L a b o r a t o r y . U n i v e r s i t i e s s u c h a s C h i c a g o and C o l u m b i a became i m p o r t a n t s i t e s 1

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f o r g e o c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h and t r a i n i n g o n l y a f t e r 1 9 3 0 , and l a r g e l y under t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f d e v e l o p m e n t s t a k i n g p l a c e o u t s i d e o f t h e university setting. I n t h e case of geochemistry, the u n i v e r s i t y was n o t t h e m a t r i x o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . R a t h e r i t was t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey and l a t e r t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y . T h i s i s n o t t o deny t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m a r k e t s and u n i v e r s i t i e s i n t h e g e n e s i s and d e v e l o p m e n t o f new r e s e a r c h f i e l d s i n turn of the century America. I t i s t o s u g g e s t however t h a t we s h o u l d beware o f l a y i n g undue s t r e s s on m a r k e t f o r c e s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s a t t h e expense o f i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s . T h e r e i s an i n t e l l e c t u a l b a s i s f o r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . Scientists are n o t p o w e r l e s s c a p t i v e s o f market c o n d i t i o n s n o r i s t h e i r s c i e n c e a p a s s i v e s t u f f that adapts i t s e l f to the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . S c i e n t i s t s a r e , or can be, a c t i v e a g e n t s who s h a p e t h e v e s s e l s i n w h i c h t h e y w o r k i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f c o n c e p t u a l n e e d s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s . I n the c a s e o f g e o c h e m i s t r y , t h e c o n c e p t s w e r e drawn l a r g e l y f r o m p e t r o g r a p h y and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . They came t o g e t h e r i n America because t h e r e were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f b o t h o f these t r a d i t i o n s p r e s e n t who p e r c e i v e d a f i t b e t w e e n t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e one f i e l d and t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e o t h e r and who w e r e i n p o s i t i o n s t o mold i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h a new s p e c i a l t y m i g h t grow. A c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y was p r e r e q u i s i t e , b u t i n t h i s c a s e , t h a t f l e x i b i l i t y was n o t t o be f o u n d i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y b u t r a t h e r i n t h e much m a l i g n e d G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y o f t h e p o s t - P o w e l l e r a and i n t h e C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n o f Washington. Acknowledgments I w i s h t o t h a n k D r . L a r r y Owens o f P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y and Dr. R. E. G i b s o n o f t h e A p p l i e d P h y s i c s L a b o r a t o r y o f t h e J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y f o r t h e i r comments o n a n e a r l i e r d r a f t o f t h i s e s s a y , and I g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o f Learned S o c i e t i e s and t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n .

Literature Cited 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Kevles, Daniel J. "The Physicists: The History of a S c i e n t i ­ f i c Community i n Modern America"; Knopf: New York, 1978. Badash, Lawrence. "Radioactivity i n America: Growth and Decay of a Science"; Johns Hopkins University Press: B a l t i ­ more, 1979. Rosenberg, Charles E. "No Other Gods: On Science and Ameri­ can Social Thought"; Johns Hopkins University Press; B a l t i ­ more, 1976; Part 2. Kohler, Robert E. "From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry: The Making of a Biomedical D i s c i p l i n e " ; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1982. Veysey, Laurence R. "The Emergence of the American Universi­ ty"; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1975.

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6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

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13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

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Ben David, Joseph. "The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study"; Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, N . J . , 1971; pp. 139-168. Dolby, R. G. A. Annals Sci. 1977, 34, 287-310. Higham, John. In "The Organization of Science in Modern America": Oleson, Alexandra and Voss, John, Ed.; Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, 1979; pp. 3-18. Shils, Edward. In "The Organization of Science in Modern America" (Ref. 8); pp. 19-47. Manten, A. A. Chem. Geol. 1966, 1, 5-31. Loewinson-Lessing, F. Y. "A Historical Survey of Petrology"; Tomkeieff, S. I . , Trans.; Oliver & Boyd: Edinburgh, 1954. Brock, W. H. In "Images of the Earth: Essays in the History of the Environmental Sciences": Jordanova, L. J. and Porter, Roy S., Ed.; British Society for the History of Science: Chalfont St. Gilles, 1979; pp. 147-170. Allen, David Elliston, In "Images of the Earth" (Ref. 12); pp. 200-212. Ref. 11, pp. 1-7 and 33-35. Cross, Charles Whitman. Journ. Geol. 1902, 10, 322-376 and 451-499. Iddings, Joseph Paxton. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash. 1892-1894, 12, 89-214, esp. 91-127. Bascom, F. Johns Hopkins Studies in Geology 1927, no. 8, 33-82. Knopf, Adolph. In "Geology, 1888-1938. Fiftieth Anniversary Volume of the Geological Society of America"; Geological Society of America, 1941; pp. 335-363. Larsen, E. S. In "Geology, 1888-1938" (Ref. 18); pp. 393-413. Bunsen, Robert. Pogg. Ann. Phys. u. Chem. 1851, 83, 197-272. Bunsen, Robert. Zeitsch. Deutsch, Geol. Ges. 1861, 13, 61-63. Durocher, J . Ann. Mines 1857, 11, 220. On the origins of physical chemistry see Root-Bernstein, Robert Scott. Ph.D., Thesis, Princeton University, Princeton, N . J . , 1980. Bancroft, W. D. In "A Half-century of Chemistry in America, 1876-1926"; Browne, Charles Α., Ed.; Chemical Publishing Co.: Easton, Pa., 1926; p. 94. Hoff, J . H. van't. "Physical Chemistry in the Service of the Sciences"; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1903. Jones, Harry Clary. "A New Era in Chemistry"; Constable & Co.: London, 1913. Servos, John W. Ph.D., Thesis, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., 1979; Chapter 2. Riesenfeld, Ernest H. "Svante Arrhenius"; Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft: Leipzig, 1931; pp. 40-47. Ref. 17, pp. 44ff. Mathews, Ε. B. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 1933, 44, 352-374. Larsen, E. S. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1958, 32, 100-112.

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38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.

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Knopf, Adolph. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1960, 34, 228-248. Birch, Francis. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1960, 34, 30-64. Dennis, L. M. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1934, 15, 139-165. Iddings. Joseph Paxton. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash. 1888-1891, 11, 65-114. Ref. 16, pp. 154-156. Iddings, Joseph Paxton. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash. 1888-1891, 11, 191-220, esp. 212-213 and 217. Ref. 16, pp. 158-160. Ref. 16, p. 194. Chamberlin, T. C. Journ. Geol. 1918, 26, 690-697. Vance, Maurice. "Charles Richard Van Hise: Scientist Progressive"; State Historical Society of Wisconsin: Madison, 1960. Van Hise, Charles R. Science 1902, 16, 326. A. T. Lincoln to C. R. Van Hise, 19 October 1899, U. S. G. S. Lake Superior Division Official Correspondence, Box 6, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. C. R. Van Hise to A. T. Lincoln, 24 October 1899, U. S. G. S. Lake Superior Division Official Correspondence, Van Hise Letterbooks, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Van Hise, Charles R. "A Treatise on Metamorphism"; U. S. Government Printing Office: Washington, 1904. Miller, Benjamin LeRoy. Johns Hopkins Studies in Geology 1927, no. 8, 121-135. Van Hise, Charles R. Journ. Geol. 1900, 8, 730-770. Van Hise, Charles R. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 1898, 9, 269-328. Van Hise, Charles R. Journ. Geol. 1904, 12, 589-616. Ref. 49, p. 609. Ref. 49, pp. 610-611 Ref. 42, pp. 322-323. Ref. 19, pp. 395-398. Ref. 11, pp. 42-48. C. D. Walcott to C. R. Van Hise, 24 February 1900, U. S. G. S. Lake Superior Division Correspondence, Box 6, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Servos, John W. Hist. Stud. Phys. S c i . , in press. C. R. Van Hise, J . S. Diller, and S. F. Emmons to C. D. Walcott, 13 March 1900, Box 17, George F. Becker Papers, Library of Congress. Merrill, George. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1920, 21, 1-13. Day, Arthur L. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 1919, 31, 14-19. The work of this laboratory may be followed in the U. S. Geological Survey, Annual Report. Day, A. L. and Allen, Ε. T. "Isomorphism and the Thermal Properties of the Feldspars"; Carnegie Institution of Washington: Washington, 1905; p. 17. U. S. Geological Survey, Annual Report 1904-1905, 26, 99. Eugster, Hans P. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1980, 52, 34-79. Tilley, C. E. Biogr. Mem. F. R. S. 1957, 3, 6-22.

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Geochemistry in America

65. Day, A. L. and Shepherd, E. S. Science 1906, 23, 670-672. 66. Shepherd, E. S. and Rankin, G. A. Am. Journ. Sci. 1909, 28, 292-333. 67. Bates, P. H. Journ. Franklin Inst. 1922, 193, 293-294. 68. Sosman, Robert B. "The Properties of Silica"; Chemical Catalog Co.: New York, 1927; pp. 809-812. 69. Wright, F. E. "The Manufacture of Optical Glass and of Optical Systems: A Wartime Problem"; U. S. Government Printing Office: Washington, 1921; pp. 10-13. 70. Arthur L. Day to John C. Merriam, 26 July 1930, Geophysical Laboratory Projects--High Pressure Research Program, files of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C. 71. The two forms of explanation are not mutually exclusive. See Guedon, Jean-Claude. In "History of Chemical Engineering": Furter, William F . , Ed.; American Chemical Society: Wash­ ington, 1980; pp. 45-75. RECEIVED

November 10, 1982

Parascandola and Whorton; Chemistry and Modern Society ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1984.

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