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THE MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENTIFX ACTIVITIES AND FOREIGN RELATIONS WALTER M. RUDOLPH1 Depahnent of State, Washington, D. C.
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reciprocal relationship between science and human relations finds expression in many departments of life. The literature is replete with observations on the interaction of scientific experimentation and industrial progress. Much scientific knowledge has been applied to military policy and planning; and conversely, t,hese policy and planning activities have often affected scientific research and development. The same observations can be made on the relationship between science and activities in agriculture, medicine, and other large fields of human endeavors. Only recently, however, has thought seriously been given to t,he connection between science and the relations among national governments. I t was largely in recognition of these latter reciprocal relations that the work of the office of the Science Adviser in the Department of State and of the science at,taches in Embassies abroad was set in motion in 1951. The work proceeds from the obvious fact that, more and more, scientific activities are affecting our foreign relations. This fact makes it imperative that these activities here and abroad be recognized and identified, their jmplications and their potentialities for foreign relations be evaluated, and when appropriate their import be brought to the attention of the Department and the Foreign Service. There is another side to this fact: the conduct of foreign relations is increasingly influencing scientific progress. This side of the coin requires that the objectives of scientific activities and our political, economic, security, and other national objectives he reconciled. In carrying on activities that help promote scientific progress, such as the exchange of scientific persons, encouragement of international meetings, and programs such as the International Geophysical Year (IGY), day-to-day decisions must be reached for achieving maximum benefit to our foreign relations and to the progress of science. This is the context within which the work is oriented. THEROLEOFTHEDEPARTMENTOFSTATE
The Berkner reportZ emphasized over and over again the importance of that area in which scientific act,ivities and foreign relations may mutually influence each other. The business of that area is the business of the Department of State. The Office of the Science Adviser and the science attaches in capitals abroad have been components of the Department of State precisely because their business is essentially with mattera in this peculiar area. The primary concern of the Office of the Science
' Assi~tantto the Science Adviser. Science and Poreign Relations, Department of State Poblioation 38fi0, General Foreign I'olicy Series 30, Releapcd May, 1950.
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Adviser has accordingly been with this particular segment of foreign relations. It has attempted to integrate its work with that of the other Department offices when scientific elements have been significant. It coordinates much of its work with the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council. It relies heavily upon the Academy-Research Council for assistance, and has good reason for doing so. That body has initiated and directed many important scientific activities, and by its Congressional charter is linked to the Department in its capacity as scientific counselor to the United States Government. By virtue of membership on the Interdepartmental Committee on Scientific Research and Development, the Office of the Science Adviser has established liaison with other member government units. Through this liaison, the Office has their cooperation in relevant matters, and they in turn can utilize when appropriate the facilities of the Department. The Office has attempted to serve as a medium through which questions of foreign relations, when they involve scientific considerations, can be channeled by those outside the Department, including other government units and private sources. In brief, the Office operates as any other office in the Department operates in processing questions and reaching decisions on issues of foreign relations. Similarly, the primary concern of the science attaches overseas has been mith this peculiar area of foreign relations. Their offices have been the counterpart in the field of the Office of the Science Adviser in Washington. Day to day, they have operated in the same n a y and in the same, context in which other Embassy officers have operated. In their associations mith foreign individuals, organizations, and governments, they have represented a t once the interests of their government and of science. When, in their observations growing out of these associations and of other sources, they believed a particular seientifir activity carried significant import for our relations mith the country of their assignment, they have conferred with other Embassy officers and advised with them. The composite of thought and reflectiou brought to bear on the matter thus called to the attention of their Embassy colleagues often has give11 science attaches the basis for dispatching to Washiugton a report useful to the Department. To be sure, science attaches have reported on other scientific matters abroad. These reports, hoxsever, usually have been connected mith foreign relations questions, and they have not typically been supplied to facilitate a particular research program carried on in the United States. Science attaches have facilitated international exchange of information and persons. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
They have helped American scientists visiting abroad. Functions of research reporting, and liaison, and servicing, however, have been performed quite successfully by other U. S. Government officers and by nongovernment U. S. organizations abroad. Although the science attaches have engaged in these activities, their main business has been collaboration with other Embassy officers on foreign relations matters when the questions raised required the abilities or the judgment or the counsel of men with scientific background and experience. A few examples may be outlined of how the Office of the Science Adviser and the science attaches together have been concerned with matters in that unique domain where scientific activities and foreign relations often affect each other. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES
In the past few years international scientific meetings have multiplied and attendance has mounted. The Department is called on more and more for advice and assistance. The Office of the Science Adviser, in collaboration with other government and non-government units, has assisted in planning such meetings, selecting United States delegates, briefing official delegates when appropriate, and arranging for financing either by the Department or by other sources. The Office of the Science Adviser has also worked closely with Department officersresponsible for action on visa and passport matters. The Office sometimes receives inquiries from other departments or agencies or from outside sources relating to visa applications of particular foreign scientists invited to come to this country. I n such instances, the Office normally brings the inquiries to the attention of the appropriate Department officers. It does not request special consideration for scientists or suggest ways of getting around the law. It is, however, often able to supply pertinent information and advice to the office responsible for responding to the visa inquiries before the replies are made. Its collaboration has resulted in a clearer and more comprehensive understanding of the inquiries, and has thus helped in the effort of reconciling our security and other objectives with the objectives of scientific progress. Conversely, other offices of the Department a t times have requested of the Office of the Science Adviser information and advice on visa and passport matters, and the Office nearly always has succeeded in being of service. A striking parallel to that just sketched has operated in the Embassies abroad where science attaches have been posted. They too have developed an amicable relation with Consular Officers, and have collaborated with them on recurring occasions on matters relating to the entry of foreign scientific visitors to this country.
substantially to aid Department officers responsible for exchange-of-persons programs in their selection process by furnishing them reliable appraisals of scientific candidates and projects. Similar assistance has been given to Embassy officers in the missions where science attaches have been assigned. Typically, science attaches have been fnllfledged members of the Educational Commissions in the countries of their assignment. In this capacity, they have participated actively in developing national exchange programs and in directing the process of selection and screening of Fulbright and other exchange candidates. The Office of the Science Adviser bas attained a degree of success in helping to coordinate private programs of exchange with those of the Department. It has, for example, aided in the planning of such programs; and science attaches have taken up the thread and advised on the details of the programs abroad. Conversely, science attaches have themselves stimulated exchange programs operated by non-government funds. ATOMS FOR PEACE
The 1951 announcement setting up the Office of the Science Adviser specifically excluded responsibilities for atomic energy matters from its province. That Office does not now have such responsibilities. A separate unit was functioning successfully a t that time, and continues effectively to assume responsibilities for all atomic energy matters relating to the business of the Department of State. However, in the Embassies abroad the science attaches have aided considerably in the atoms for peace program. They have been in a unique position to explain the scientific aspects of the program to foreign scientists interested in taking advantage of the opportunities the United States had to offer to foreign governments. The science attaches have been helpful to Embassy officers in coordinating the scientific aspects of the program with political and other aspects. Whenever questions, arising from negotiations of bilateral agreements, related to the scientific aspects of the program, the science attaches were able to help effectively in framing the questions in terms that often facilitated practicable solutions. Their advice on stepby-step developments abroad relating to the scientific side of the negotiations was of significant assistance to foreign governments and to this Government. Two science attaches stationed in Europe in 1955 were designated by the Department of State as advisers to the United States Delegation a t the Geneva Conference. In that capacity, they served the delegation and the Department by advising on significant developments and supplying pertinent analyses useful for our foreign relations.
EXCHANGE OF PERSONS
The Office of the Science Adviser has assisted a sizable number of American and foreign scientists seeking professional opportunities here and abroad, when their proposals were deemed worthy, by advising on appropriate channels they might profitably follow in and outside the Department. Utilizing the facilities of the Academy-Research Council and calling on the science attaches abroad, the Office has also been able VOLUME 34, NO. 3, MARCH, 1957
INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR
The Academy-Research Council, responsible for planning and directing the United States part of the IGY program, understandably proceeded on the proposition that the job was essentially one for scientists. It discerned, however, that in the development of this program of international proportions the area in which scientific activities and foreign relations could
mutually influence each other could be particularly important. Consequently, it asked the Department specifically the Office of the Science Adviser-to serve on the US-IGY National Committee as ex oficio member. The creation of this communication channel between the Department and the National Committee for occasions when scientific plans seem to impinge on our foreign relations, and our foreign relations on scientific plans, has been justified. There already have been occasions when questions of mutual concern have arisen and solutions worked out. For example, the United States and the Canadian-IGY National Committees had agreed on the scientific desirability of a cooperative IGY project. These plans, however, raised questions for this Government and the Canadian Government concerning the interchange of personnel and equipment. These questions of diplomatic relations nrere worked out with the Canadian Government and formal arrangements were concluded. Thus, this particular cooperative scientific activity is now
consistent nith the ICY program and with the foreign policies of the United States and Canada. The Department has lent its facilities to IGY scientists in conducting meetings abroad to discuss the coordination of plans with scientists of other IGY countries. They were non-governmental assemblies and the Department has no representation a t the meetings. However, the possibility that questions in the area of science and foreign relations could arise in these meetings had been recognized by the United States IGY scientists and the Department alike. Consequently, in planning those meetings, arrangements were made with the appropriate American Embassy abroad to make its facilities and services available so that such questions could he handled expeditiously. As the IGY planning proceeds, the Department will continue its liaison with the US-IGY National Committee to insure the reconciliation between its scientific activities and our foreign policy objectives.
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